Full Description
Informed by the latest research on topics ranging from phonemic awareness and phonics to teaching comprehension strategies, motivation, and assessment, this text provides the knowledge base, skills, and research-based strategies that you need to guide K-8 students successfully toward literacy for the 21st century-using reading and writing for thinking, problem solving, and communicating. Principal themes include balancing phonemic skills with more holistic approaches; fostering the love of reading; and successfully teaching all students to become able and eager readers.Motivating Struggling Readers features provide real-life examples of research-based strategies in action that help make reading exciting for all learners. Motivating Children with Technology features provide access to technological resources related to chapter concepts and explain why a technology-based approach can sometimes be more motivating for students than a traditional approach. Differentiating Instruction for English Language Learners features provide guidance on how to successfully teach English language learners in a classroom of native speakers.
Contents
CONTENTSPreface xxviiAcknowledgments xxxiiiAbout the Authors xxxvThe Reading Process 2The Cognitive-Constructivist View of Reading 2In the Classroom 1.1 Using Background Knowledge 3The Cognitive Orientation 3Schema 4Constructivism 5Reader-Response Theory 6Sociocultural Theory 7Reflect and Apply 8Concepts That Elaborate and Complement the Cognitive-Constructivist View 8The Interactive Model of Reading 8Automaticity 9Fluency 10Metacognition 11The Reading Corner Books to Help Build Automaticity and Fluency in Young Readers 12Reflect and Apply 13The Reading Proficiency of U.S. Students 13A Response to Current Criticisms 14Literacy for Today's and Tomorrow's World 16In the Classroom 1.2 Developing Present-Day Literacy in the Sixth Grade 17Reflect and Apply 18A Literacy Curriculum for Today's and Tomorrow's World 18Phonemic Awareness and Other Aspects of Emergent Literacy 19Phonics and Other Word-Recognition Skills 20Fluency and Matching Students with Appropriate Texts 20Vocabulary Learning and Instruction 20Scaffolding Students' Comprehension of Text and Higher-Order Thinking 21Teaching Comprehension Strategies 21Encouraging Independent Reading and Reader Response 21Fostering Higher-Order Thinking and Deep Understanding 22Building Connections 23Reflect and Apply 23An Overview of This Book 23Chapter-by-Chapter Overview 24The Components and Organization of the Chapters 24Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 25Concluding Remarks 26Extending Learning 26Children's Literature 27CHAPTER 2 READING INSTRUCTIONInstructional Principles 30Traditional Instructional Principles 30The Reading Corner Informational Books That Give Students Opportunities to Make Critical Responses 31Focusing on Academically Relevant Tasks 32Employing Active Teaching 32Fostering Active Learning 33In the Classroom 2.1 Actively Engaging Students in Reading and Responding to a Text 33Distinguishing Between Instruction and Practice 33Providing Sufficient and Timely Feedback 34Teaching for Transfer 34Reflect and Apply 35Constructivist and Sociocultural Perspectives on Instruction 35Scaffolding 36The Zone of Proximal Development 36The Gradual Release of Responsibility Model 37Cognitive Modeling 39In the Classroom 2.2 Cognitive Modeling 39Direct Explanation 40Contextualizing, Reviewing, and Practicing What Is Learned 40Teaching for Understanding 41Cooperative Learning 41Reflect and Apply 42A Brief History of Reading Instruction in the United States 42The Colonial Period and the 19th Century 43The Heyday of Basal Readers 44The Challenge to Basal Readers: Whole-Language and Literature-Based Approaches 45Massive Federal Intervention in Reading 47Reading Instruction at Its Best 48Reflect and Apply 49Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 49Concluding Remarks 51Extending Learning 52Children's Literature 53CHAPTER 3 MOTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENTMaking Motivation a Top Priority 56The Critical Importance of Success 56Creating a Literate Environment 58Modeling 58Time 58The Classroom 60Materials 60In the Classroom 3.1 Assessing Students' Reading Attitudes and Interests 62Choice 63The Reading Corner Books About Food and Families in Many Cultures 65In the Classroom 3.2 Poetry Browsing to Create Interest 66Classroom Climate 67Reflect and Apply 67The Importance of Positive Attributions 67Attribution Theory 68Learned Helplessness 68The Importance of Appropriate Challenges 69In the Classroom 3.3 Providing Both Challenges and Supports 69Concrete Approaches to Motivating Students 71Ensuring Student Success 71In the Classroom 3.4 Creating a Book Review File 72Promoting Academic Values and Goals 72Fostering Higher-Order Thinking and Deep Understanding 73Ensuring Active Participation, Using Cooperative Activities, and Including Variety 74Making Connections to Students' Cultures and Lives Outside of School 75Praising Students, Rewarding Them, and Helping Them Set Goals 76Factors That Undermine Motivation 76Reflect and Apply 77Nancy Masters, a Superstar at Motivating Students 78Grouping Students for Instruction 79In the Classroom 3.5 Primary-Grade Cooperative Learning to Solve Story Problems 82Reflect and Apply 83Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 83Concluding Remarks 84Extending Learning 86Children's Literature 87CHAPTER 4 CLASSROOM ASSESSMENTBy Kathleen M. Wilson and Robert C. Calfee with contributions by Kathleen Clark Our Perspective on Assessment 428An Emphasis on Inquiry 428Three Themes of Assessment 429Balanced Assessment 430Teacher-Based Strategies 431Features of Contemporary Assessment Methods 431In the Classroom 4.1 The Roots Project 431The Roots Project and Assessment 432Some Answers to Our Opening Questions 434What Does the Teacher Need to Know, Week by Week, and Why? 434What About Students? 434What About Parents? 435What About Other Teachers? 435What About the Principal? 436A Final Word on the Roots Project 436Reflect and Apply 436Assessment as Inquiry 436Framing the Problem: What Is the Question? 437Designing a Plan of Action 440In the Classroom 4.2 Vocabulary Assessment in the Third Grade 440Collecting Evidence 443Observing 443Discussing and Questioning 446Interviewing 447In the Classroom 4.3 The Funnel Approach 447Student Work Samples: Performances and Portfolios 448Scoring Rubrics 449Models for Teacher-Made Tests 452Analyzing and Summarizing the Data: The Teacher Logbook 454Interpreting: Making Sense of the Results 457In the Classroom 4.4 Interpreting Evidence in the Sixth Grade 457In the Classroom 4.5 Collecting More Evidence 458Reporting and Decision Making 459Reflect and Apply 460Test-Based Strategies 461Basal Reader Tests 461Standardized Tests 463Preparing Students for Standardized Tests 466In the Classroom 4.6 Using "Simon Says" to Practice Test Taking 468nReflect and Apply 471Concluding Remarks 471Extending Learning 472Children's Literature 473CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION AND INTERVENTIONLearning Disabilities Environmental Causes The Matthew Effect Differentiating Instruction in the General Education ClassroomResponse to InterventionIn the Classroom 5.1 Differentiating Word Study InstructionDifferentiating Time, Tasks, and TextsPlanning Small-Group Instruction 434In the Classroom 5.2 Differentiating Comprehension InstructionIn the Classroom 5.3 Planning for Differentiated Small-Group InstructionIn the Classroom 5.4 A Differentiated Historical Fiction UnitWhat Does the Teacher Need to Know, Week by Week, and Why? 434What About Students? 434What About Parents? 435What About Other Teachers? 435What About the Principal? 436INTERVENTION FOR STRUGGLING READERS 436Reflect and Apply 436Assessment as Inquiry 436Framing the Problem: What Is the Question? 437Designing a Plan of Action 440In the Classroom 4.2 Vocabulary Assessment in the Third Grade 440Collecting Evidence 443Observing 443Discussing and Questioning 446Interviewing 447In the Classroom 4.3 The Funnel Approach 447Student Work Samples: Performances and Portfolios 448Scoring Rubrics 449Models for Teacher-Made Tests 452Analyzing and Summarizing the Data: The Teacher Logbook 454Interpreting: Making Sense of the Results 457In the Classroom 4.4 Interpreting Evidence in the Sixth Grade 457In the Classroom 4.5 Collecting More Evidence 458Reporting and Decision Making 459Reflect and Apply 460Test-Based Strategies 461Basal Reader Tests 461Standardized Tests 463Preparing Students for Standardized Tests 466In the Classroom 4.6 Using "Simon Says" to Practice Test Taking 468nReflect and Apply 471Concluding Remarks 471Extending Learning 472Children's Literature 473CHAPTER 6 EMERGENT LITERACYEmerging Knowledge About Text Structures 90In the Classroom 6.1 Using Wordless Picture Books in a Kindergarten Classroom 91Emerging Knowledge About Word Structures 92In the Classroom 6.2 Kindergartners and the PWords 93Phonemic Awareness and Alphabet Recognition 94What Is Phonemic Awareness? 95In the Classroom 6.3 Phonemic Awareness (Segmenting and Blending Sounds) 96Why Do Phonemic Awareness and Alphabet Recognition So Strongly Predict Success in Reading? 96Reflect and Apply 97Learning to Identify Words 97Some Early Understandings About Print 98In the Classroom 6.4 Using Letter Puppets to Help Children Understand the Connection Between Phonemes and Letters 99Connecting Letters and Phonemes 100Linking Letters and Phonemes: The Alphabetic Principle 100Reflect and Apply 102Instruction That Facilitates Children's Growing Literacy 102Creating a Literate Environment 102Reading Opportunities 103The Morning Meeting 103Free "Reading" 104Selecting Books for Specific Purposes 104In the Classroom 6.5 Developing Phonemic Awareness 105Writing Opportunities 106The Reading Corner Big Books 107Journals 107Language-Experience Activities 108Shared Reading and Writing Experience 108In the Classroom 6.6 Reading and Writing Rhymes 109Making Books 109Mailboxes 110Play Centers 110Listening and Speaking Opportunities 110Reading Aloud 111Choral Reading 111Tape Recordings 111Sing-Alongs 111A Kindergarten Scenario - 112By Jonnie WolskeeReflect and Apply 117Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 117Concluding Remarks 118Extending Learning 119Children's Literature 121CHAPTER 7 WORD RECOGNITION with contributions by Kathleen ClarkThe Importance of Recognizing Printed Words 124Why Listening Is Easier Than Reading 125Shared Background Knowledge 125Immediate Feedback 125Visual Cues from the Speaker 125More Common Words 125Contextualized Meaning 125No Translation Needed 126Skilled Readers Automatically Recognize Words 126The Structure of Spoken and Printed Words 127The Makeup of Spoken and Written English 127Phonemes: Vowels and Consonants 128Syllables, Onsets, and Rimes 129Word Families and Phonograms 130Morphemes 130Affixes: Prefixes and Suffixes 130The Alphabetic Principle 132The Structure of Printed Words: The Good News 133Reflect and Apply 134Our Position on Phonics Instruction and Related Matters 134Word-Study Instruction 135Five General Principles of Word-Study Instruction 135Teaching Children to Recognize Words 137Getting Started: Sight Words and Word Banks 138Language Experience 140Read, Read, Read 140Teaching Children About Letter-Sound Correspondences 141Phase 1: Learning the Alphabet, Beginning Word Study, and Initial Blending Instruction 142The Reading Corner Alphabet Books 142In the Classroom 7.1 Alphabet Activities 143In the Classroom 7.2 Work with Onsets (Initial Consonants) 145In the Classroom 7.3 Working with the Rime atand Some Individual Phonemes 147In the Classroom 7.4 Steps in Blending 148Phase 2: Short Vowels, Final Consonants, Consonant Blends, Consonant Digraphs, and Formal Blending Instruction 149In the Classroom 7.5 Making New Words 150In the Classroom 7.6 Word-Study Instruction on Consonant Blends 151In the Classroom 5.7 What First-Graders Should Know 152Phase 3: Short Vowels, Long-Vowel Patterns, Multisyllabic Words, and Prefixes and Suffixes 153In the Classroom 7.8 Short-Vowel Work in the First Grade 154In the Classroom 7.9 Contrasting Short- and Long-Vowel Patterns 155In the Classroom 7.10 Multisyllabic Words 157In the Classroom 7.11 Teaching Prefixes and Suffixes 158Reflect and Apply 158About Reading a Lot 159Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 161Concluding Remarks 162Extending Learning 162Children's Literature 163STUDENTSCHAPTER 8 FLUENCYFluency and Its Importance 172Reflect and Apply 174Approaches to Building Fluency 174Some Generalizations About Fluency Instruction 174The Original Method of Repeated Reading 175In the Classroom 8.1 The Original Method of Repeated Reading 176Simultaneous Repeated Reading 178Echo Reading 179Tape-Assisted Repeated Reading 179In the Classroom 8.2 Tape-Assisted Repeated Reading 180Partner Reading 180In the Classroom 8.3 Partner Reading 181Choral Reading 181Readers Theater 182In the Classroom 8.4 Schedule for a Week of Readers Theater 182Radio Reading 182In the Classroom 8.5 Plan for a Radio-Reading Session 183Fluency-Oriented Oral Reading 184In the Classroom 8.6 Fluency-Oriented Oral Reading 184Commercial Fluency Programs 185Read Naturally Masters Edition 185Renaissance Learning's Fluent Reader 186Wide Reading in Appropriate Texts 186Reflect and Apply 187Assessing Readers' Fluency 187In the Classroom 8.7 Procedures for Measuring Rate and Accuracy 188The Reading Corner Books to Build Fluency in Developing Readers 191Choosing Among the Approaches to Fluency 192Matching Students and Texts 192Assessing Students' Reading Proficiency and Motivation 193In the Classroom 8.8 Constructing an Informal Reading Inventory 193Assessing Text Difficulty and Accessibility 195In the Classroom 8.9 Using the Fry Readability Formula 196Your Personal and Professional Knowledge 198Reflect and Apply 199Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 200Concluding Remarks 201Extending Learning 202Children's Literature 203CHAPTER 9 VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENTThe Vocabulary-Learning Task 206Frequent, Extensive, and Varied Language Experiences 207In the Classroom 9.1 Interactive Oral Reading as Described by Biemiller 209Reflect and Apply 210Teaching Individual Words 210Word-Learning Tasks 210Learning a Basic Vocabulary 210Learning to Read Known Words 210Learning New Words That Represent Known Concepts 211Learning New Words That Represent New Concepts 211Clarifying and Enriching the Meanings of Known Words 212Identifying Vocabulary to Teach 212Methods of Teaching Individual Words 213Learning a Basic Vocabulary 213Learning to Read Known Words 215Learning New Words That Represent Known Concepts 215In the Classroom 9.2 Two Ways to Introduce New Words Representing Known Concepts 216Learning New Words That Represent New Concepts 217In the Classroom 9.3 Introducing New Words That Represent New Concepts 217Clarifying and Enriching the Meanings of Known Words 217In the Classroom 9.4 Semantic Mapping and Semantic Feature Analysis 218Reflect and Apply 220Teaching Word-Learning Strategies 220Using Context Clues 220In the Classroom 9.5 Balanced Strategies Instruction 221In the Classroom 9.6 Teaching Context Clues 222Using Word Parts 222In the Classroom 9.7 Teaching Prefixes 224Using the Dictionary 224Reflect and Apply 226Fostering Word Consciousness 226The Reading Corner Books About Words and Word Games 227Modeling and Encouraging Adept Diction 227Providing Intensive and Expressive Instruction 229Reflect and Apply 230Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 230Concluding Remarks 232Extending Learning 232Children's Literature 233Instructional Frameworks and Procedures 236The Roles of Purpose, Selection, and Reader in Planning a Successful Reading Experience 236Purpose 237The Function of Purposes 237Matching Reading Purposes with the Text and the Reader 237Selection 238Types of Selections 238Reader 240Reflect and Apply 240Five Frameworks for Scaffolding Students' Reading 241Directed Reading Activity 241Directed Reading-Thinking Activity 242In the Classroom 10.1 Phase I of the DR-TA 243Scaffolded Reading Experience 243Prereading Activities 244In the Classroom 10.2 Prereading Activity Relating the Reading to Students' Lives 246Reflect and Apply 247During-Reading Activities 247Reflect and Apply 249Postreading Activities 249In the Classroom 10.3 Sample Postreading Questions for Various Types of Thinking 250In the Classroom 10.4 Students' Postreading Dramatizations 252The Reading Corner Books That Invite Musical Connections 253Reflect and Apply 255Comprehensive SREs 256Guided Reading 256Four Blocks 257Individual Procedures for Fostering Comprehension of Text 258Procedures for Narratives 259Story Grammars 259Story Maps 260Procedures for Expository Texts 261K-W-L 261In the Classroom 10.5 Using K-W-L 262Reading Guides 263Procedures Appropriate for All Types of Text 264Discussion Web 264Semantic Webbing and Weaving 264Reflect and Apply 266Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 266Concluding Remarks 268Extending Learning 268Children's Literature 269CHAPTER 11 TEACHING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIESWhat Are Comprehension Strategies? 272Characteristics of Comprehension Strategies 273Strategies Are Conscious Efforts 273Strategies Are Flexible 273Strategies Should Be Applied Only When Appropriate 273Strategies Are Widely Applicable 273Strategies Can Be Overt or Covert 274Reflect and Apply 274Key Comprehension Strategies 274Establishing a Purpose for Reading 275Using Prior Knowledge 275Asking and Answering Questions 275Making Inferences 276Determining What Is Important 276Summarizing 277Dealing with Graphic Information 278Imaging and Creating Graphic Representations 278In the Classroom 11.1 Practicing Imaging with First-Graders 278Being Metacognitive 279In the Classroom 11.2 Fostering Metacognition 280Reflect and Apply 281The Reading Corner Books That Illustrate Strategic Behavior 282A Powerful Approach to Teaching Strategies 282The First Day's Instruction on Determining What Is Important 284Motivation and Interest Building 284Teacher Explanation 284Teacher Modeling 285Large-Group Student Participation and Teacher Mediation 285The Second Day's Instruction on Determining What Is Important 287More Large-Group Student Participation and Teacher Mediation 287Cooperative Group Work 287Sharing Group Work and Teacher Response and Mediation 287Overview of a Unit 288The Constructive Nature of Good Strategy Instruction 288Transfer, Review, and Integration Activities 288Reflect and Apply 290Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 291Concluding Remarks 291Extending Learning 292Children's Literature 293CHAPTER 12 ENCOURAGING INDEPENDENT READING AND READER RESPONSEIndependent Reading 296Providing Time to Read 296Providing a Rich Array of Reading Material, the Incentive to Read, and a Place to Read 297In the Classroom 12.1 Guidelines for Choosing Books for Your Classroom Library 297Assisting Students in Selecting Material 298In the Classroom 12.2 Guidelines for Helping Students Select Reading Material 298Establishing and Maintaining an Independent Reading Program 298Encouraging Out-of-School Reading 299Responding to Literature 300Reader Response 300In the Classroom 12.3 Students' Artistic Responses After Reading About Animals 301Literature Circles 302In the Classroom 12.4 Establishing Literature Circles in a Fourth-Grade Classroom 302Three Frameworks That Promote Literature and Reader Response 303Book Club and Book Club Plus 304Reading Workshop 306In the Classroom 12.5 A Glimpse into a Reading Workshop in Action 308Reflect and Apply 309Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 309In the Classroom 12.6 Encouraging Reluctant Readers 310Concluding Remarks 311Extending Learning 311Children's Literature 312FOURTH-GRADE STUDENTSCHAPTER 13 WRITING AND READINGThe Reading-Writing Connection 358A Positive Reading-Writing Environment 358The Intellectual Climate 359The Physical Environment 360In the Classroom 13.1 Guidelines for Creating a Positive Writing Environment 360The Process Approach to Writing 361Informal Writing 364nReflect and Apply 365Some Writing Forms and Purposes 365Writing to Learn and to Understand 366Note Taking 366In the Classroom 13.2 Sample Lesson on Note Taking 367Brainstorming and Quickwriting 367Semantic Mapping, the Venn Diagram, and K-W-L 368Journals 370In the Classroom 13.3 Introducing the Response Journal to Primary-Grade Students 372In the Classroom 13.4 Guidelines for Journal Writing 375Reflect and Apply 375Writing to Communicate 375Letters 376In the Classroom 13.5 Writing Letters to or from People Students Read About 376Biographies and Autobiographies 377Reports 378The Reading Corner Books by Exemplary Nonfiction Children's Book Authors 379Imaginative Writing 380In the Classroom 13.6 Writing Imaginative Mathematics Scenarios and Questions 380Fiction 382Poetry 382In the Classroom 13.7 Writing Poems Around a Theme 383Reflect and Apply 383The Writing Workshop 383Responding to Students' Writing 385Publishing and Celebrating Writing 387Reflect and Apply 388Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 388In the Classroom 12.8 Activities to Challenge Skillful Writers 389Concluding Remarks 390Extending Learning 390Children's Literature 391CHAPTER 14 READING INSTRUCTION FOR ENGLISH-LANGUAGE LEARNERSLearning to Read English as a Second Language in the UnIted States 396Fostering Reading Achievement in English-Language Learners 396In the Classroom 14.1 Traditional Instructional Principles 396In the Classroom 14.2 Instructional Principles Motivated by Constructivist and Sociocultural Theories 397The U.S. Landscape 397Some Challenges of Learning to Read in a Second Language 399Challenges Faced by English-Language Learners 399Challenges Faced by Teachers 401What Light Does Research Shed on These Challenges? 402The Importance of Language Knowledge 403The Importance of Literacy in the First Language 404Cross-Language Influences 405Cross-Cultural Influences 405Reflect and Apply 406Instructional Principles 406Delpit's Principles for Working with Poor Urban Children 406Demand Critical Thinking 407Ensure Access to the Basic Skills, Conventions, and Strategies Essential to Success in U.S. Education 407Empower Students to Challenge Racist Views of Their Competence and Worthiness 408In the Classroom 14.3 Using the Shared Reading Experience in a Sixth-Grade ESL Class 408Recognize and Build on Strengths 409Use Familiar Metaphors and Experiences from the Children's World 409Create a Sense of Family and Caring 409Monitor and Assess Needs, and Then Address Them with a Wealth of Diverse Strategies 410Honor and Respect Children's Home Cultures 410Reflect and Apply 411Kamil and Bernhardt's Techniques for Working with English-Language Learners in Typical Classrooms 411Take Advantage of the 20 Percent Rule 411Give English-Language Learners and Yourself Plenty of Time 412In the Classroom 14.4 Summarizing Part of a Selection 413Use the Rosetta Stone Technique 414Involve Parents, Siblings, and Other Speakers of the Children's Languages 415Use All the Available People Resources 416In Assessing Students, Give Them the Freedom to Choose the Language in Which to Respond 417The Reading Corner Books Available in Bilingual Formats 418Use Informational Texts as a Significant Part of Instruction 419Use Alternative Assessment Strategies 420Additional Suggestions for Working with English-Language Learners 420In the Classroom 14.5 Gersten and Baker's Suggestions for Working with English-Language Learners 420In the Classroom 14.6 Jimenez's Recommendations for Working with Latino and Latina Students 421In the Classroom 14.7 Short and Echevarria's SIOP Model 422In the Classroom 14.8 AERA's Recommendations 422Reflect and Apply 423Concluding Remarks 423Extending Learning 424Children's Literature 425SIXTH-GRADE STUDENTSReferences 485Photo Credits 503Name Index 505Subject Index 515
