Description
Thorough review of the dyeing of cellulose fibres with information on pre- and post-processing and various types of dyes
Dyeing of Cellulose Fibres provides comprehensive coverage of the dyeing process of cellulose fibres, covering mechanisms, challenges, and pre- and post-processing. The book reviews recently developed dyes and dyeing methods, as well as dyes which were retired and brought back into use, such as sulphur dyes, which have found a place in obtaining a vintage effect, with additional information on fibres close to cellulose and how to correct faulty dyeing.
Written by a leading authority in the field, Dyeing of Cellulose Fibres includes information on:
- Basic, pigment, natural, indosol, diazotisation, naphthol, oxidation, and Vat-Leucoester (Indigosol) dyes
- Structure, fastness, and forms of reactive dyes
- Technological, environmental, and ethical developments in textile dyeing
- Leveling, colour lightening, and dye discharging processes
- Methods to obtain colour without using dye, such as through naturally coloured fibers, structural colouring with nanocrystals, microbial colouring with bacteria and fungi, and colouring through heating in textile dyeing
Dyeing of Cellulose Fibres is an excellent and completely comprehensive reference for textile engineers and chemists as well as chemical engineers. Concepts related to physics, biology, chemistry, and mathematics are discussed at a level that can be easily understood by readers who have taken undergraduate courses related to the subject.
Table of Contents
Contents
Biography xi
Preface xiii
1 General Information About Cellulose Fibres 1
1.1 Classification of Cellulose Fibres and Their Production in the World 1
1.2 Chemical Structure of Cellulose Fibres 3
1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Cellulose Fibres 6
References 8
2 Processes of Cellulose Fibres Before Dyeing 11
2.1 Conventional Pretreatment Processes Applied to Cellulose Fibres 11
2.2 Pretreatments Applicable to Improve and Change the Dyeing Properties
of Cellulose Fibres 12
References 16
3 Dyeing Mechanism of Cellulose Fibres 19
3.1 Uptake of Dyes (Adsorption and Diffusion) 20
3.2 Fixation of Dyes 23
References 26
4 Factors Affecting Uniform Dyeing in Cellulose Fibres 29
4.1 Factors Affecting Uniform Dyeing in Exhaust Method 30
4.1.1 Uniform Uptake of Dye on Textile Material from the Beginning 31
4.1.1.1 Affinity Differences in Fibres 32
4.1.1.2 Rapid Uptake of Dye 33
4.1.2 Post-levelling of Dyeing 42
4.1.2.1 Effect of Dye’s Ability to Bond with Fibre Macromolecules 42
4.1.2.2 Effect of Dye Solubility in Water 43
4.1.2.3 Effect of Fibre Condition 43
4.2 Factors Affecting Uniform Dyeing in Impregnation Method 44
References 47
5 Dyeing with Direct (Substantive) Dyes 49
5.1 Structure and Classification of Direct Dyes 49
5.2 Fastness Properties of Direct Dyes 51
5.3 End-uses of Direct Dyes 51
5.4 Dyeing with Direct Dyes 52
5.4.1 Dyeing by Exhaust Method 52
5.4.2 Dyeing by Impregnation Method 57
5.4.2.1 Pad-batch Method 58
5.4.2.2 Pad-roll Method 58
5.4.2.3 Pad-jig Method 58
5.4.2.4 Pad-steam Method 58
5.4.2.5 Pad-dry-thermofixing Method 59
5.5 Post-dyeing Aftertreatments with Direct Dyes 59
References 61
6 Dyeing with Vat (Indanthren) Dyes 63
6.1 Structure and Classification of Vat Dyes 64
6.2 Fastness Properties of Vat Dyes 66
6.3 End-uses of Vat Dyes 67
6.4 Forms of Vat Dyes 68
6.5 Dyeing with Vat Dyes 69
6.5.1 Dyeing by Exhaust Method 69
6.5.1.1 Vatting and Dyeing 69
6.5.1.2 Oxidation and Aftertreatments 91
6.5.2 Dyeing by Impregnation Method 92
6.5.2.1 Dyeing by Pad-steam Method 93
6.5.2.2 Dyeing by Pad-batch Method 99
6.5.2.3 Dyeing by Pad-jig Method 100
6.5.2.4 Dyeing by Pad-fabric Beam Method 101
6.6 Problems Encountered in Dyeing with Vat Dyes and Precautions
to Be Taken 102
6.6.1 Dark Selvedge 102
6.6.2 Light Spot 102
6.6.3 Oxidation Marks/Dark Stains 102
6.6.4 Streaky Dyeing 102
6.6.5 Poor Rubbing Fastness 102
References 103
7 Dyeing with Indigo Dye 105
7.1 Fastness Properties of Indigo Dye 106
7.2 End-uses of Indigo Dye 108
7.3 Forms of Indigo Dye 108
7.4 Dyeing with Indigo Dye 108
7.4.1 Reduction of Indigo Dye 108
7.4.2 Oxidation of Indigo Dye 112
7.4.3 Post-treatments After Indigo Dyeing 112
7.5 Indigo Dyeing Methods and Machines 113
References 115
8 Dyeing with Sulphur Dyes 117
8.1 Classification of Sulphur Dyes 118
8.1.1 Conventional Sulphur Dyes 118
8.1.2 Leuco Sulphur Dyes 119
8.1.3 Water-soluble Sulphur Dyes 119
8.1.4 Condensed Sulphur Dyes 120
8.1.4 Condensed Sulphur Dyes 120
8.2 Fastness Properties of Sulphur Dyes 121
8.3 End-uses of Sulphur Dyes 121
8.4 Forms of Sulphur Dyes 122
8.5 Dyeing with Sulphur Dyes 122
8.5.1 Chemicals Used in the Dyeing Process and Their Functions 123
8.5.2 Chemicals Used in Post-processes and Their Functions 128
8.5.3 Dyeing by Exhaust Method 130
8.5.4 Dyeing by Impregnation Method 131
8.6 Problems Encountered in Dyeing with Sulphur Dyes and Measures
to be Taken 132
8.6.1 Bronzing Effect 132
8.6.2 Strength Loss During Storage 133
8.6.3 Low Washing and Rubbing Fastness Values 133
8.6.4 Low Peroxide Fastness Values 133
8.6.5 Obtaining Low Colour Yield 134
8.6.6 Uneven Dyeing 134
References 134
9 Dyeing with Reactive Dyes 137
9.1 Structure and Classification of Reactive Dyes 139
9.1.1 Classification According to Reactive Groups 140
9.1.2 Classification According to Chromophore Groups 148
9.1.3 Classification According to Reaction with Fibre 149
9.1.3.1 Reactive Dyes Undergoing Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction 150
9.1.3.2 Reactive Dyes Undergoing Nucleophilic Addition Reaction 151
9.1.4 Classification According to Control Parameters 152
9.2 Fastness Properties of Reactive Dyes 153
9.3 Forms of Reactive Dyes 154
9.4 Dyeing with Reactive Dyes 155
9.4.1 Dyeing by Exhaust Method 155
9.4.1.1 Steps of Dyeing and Factors Affecting These Steps 155
9.4.1.2 Factors Affecting Dyeing Result in Dyeing by Exhaust Method 157
9.4.1.3 Parameters Affecting Uniformity and Reproducibility 183
9.4.1.4 Dissolution of Dyes 189
9.4.1.5 Dyeing Methods According to Salt and Alkali Addition 189
9.4.2 Dyeing by Impregnation Method with Reactive Dyes 198
9.4.2.1 Dyeing by Semi-continuous Methods 200
9.4.2.2 Dyeing by Continuous Methods 204
9.5 Washing Processes After Dyeing with Reactive Dyes 209
9.5.1 Steps of the Washing Process 210
9.5.2 Factors Affecting the Washing Process 211
9.5.2.1 Effect of Dye Substantivity 212
9.5.2.2 Effect of Fixation Degree of Dye 212
9.5.2.3 Effect of Dye Diffusion Rate 213
9.5.2.4 Effect of Temperature 213
9.5.2.5 Effect of Duration 214
9.5.2.6 Effect of Washing Number 214
9.5.2.7 Effect of Liquor Ratio 214
9.5.2.8 Effect of pH of Washing Liquor 215
9.5.2.9 Effect of Hardness Degree of Washing Water 216
9.5.2.10 Effect of Washing Agent Use 216
9.5.2.11 Effect of Enzyme Use 218
9.5.2.12 Effect of Using Ultrasound Energy 218
9.5.2.13 Effect of Washing Method 219
9.6 Aftertreatments After Dyeing with Reactive Dyes 221
References 225
10 Dyeing with Other Dyes 231
10.1 Indosol Dyes 231
10.1.1 Fastness Properties of Indosol Dyes 231
10.1.2 End-uses of Indosol Dyes 231
10.1.3 Dyeing with Indosol Dyes 232
10.2 Diazotisation Dyes 233
10.2.1 Fastness Properties of Diazotisation Dyes 234
10.2.2 End-uses of Diazotisation Dyes 234
10.2.3 Dyeing with Diazotisation Dyes 234
10.3 Developing (Naphthol) Dyes 236
10.3.1 Fastness Properties of Developing Dyes 237
10.3.2 End-uses of Developing Dyes 237
10.3.3 Dyeing with Developing Dyes 237
10.3.3.1 Dyeing by Exhaust Method 237
10.3.3.2 Dyeing Impregnation Method 242
10.4 Oxidation Dyes 243
10.4.1 Fastness Properties of Oxidation Dyes 243
10.4.2 End-uses of Oxidation Dyes 243
10.4.3 Dyeing with Oxidation Dyes 244
10.4.3.1 Dyeing with Aniline Black 244
10.4.3.2 Dyeing with Diphenyl Black 244
10.5 Vat-leucoester (Indigosol) Dyes 244
10.5.1 Fastness Properties of Vat-leucoester Dyes 245
10.5.2 End-uses of Vat-leucoester Dyes 245
10.5.3 Dyeing with Vat-leucoester Dyes 245
10.5.3.1 Dyeing by Exhaust Method 246
10.5.3.2 Dyeing by Impregnation Method 247
10.6 Basic (Cationic) Dyes 248
10.6.1 Fastness Properties of Basic Dyes 248
10.6.2 End-uses of Basic Dyes 248
10.6.3 Dyeing with Basic Dyes 249
10.7 Phthalocyanine Dyes 250
10.7.1 Fastness Properties of Phthalocyanine Dyes 250
10.7.2 End-uses of Phthalocyanine Dyes 250
10.7.3 Dyeing with Phthalocyanine Dyes 250
10.8 Mordant Dyes 251
10.8.1 Fastness Properties of Mordant Dyes 251
10.8.2 End-uses of Mordant Dyes 251
10.8.3 Dyeing with Mordant Dyes 251
10.9 Pigments 252
10.9.1 Fastness Properties of Pigments 253
10.9.2 End-uses of Pigments 253
10.9.3 Dyeing with Pigments 253
10.9.3.1 Dyeing by Impregnation Method 253
10.9.3.2 Dyeing by Exhaust Method 256
10.10 Minerals 257
10.10.1 Fastness Properties of Minerals 257
10.10.2 End-uses of Minerals 257
10.10.3 Dyeing with Minerals 258
10.11 Natural Dyes 258
References 258
11 Dyeing of Other Cellulosic Fibres 261
11.1 Dyeing of Natural Cellulosic Fibres Other Than Cotton 261
11.2 Dyeing of Regenerated Cellulose Fibres 264
References 268
12 Correction of Faulty Dyeings 271
12.1 Levelling and Colour Lightening Processes 272
12.1.1 Direct Dyes 272
12.1.2 Vat Dyes 272
12.1.3 Sulphur Dyes 272
12.1.4 Reactive Dyes 272
12.2 Dye Stripping Processes 273
12.2.1 Direct Dyes 273
12.2.2 Vat Dyes 274
12.2.3 Sulphur Dyes 274
12.2.4 Reactive Dyes 275
References 276
13 Laboratory Applications Related to Dyeing of Cellulose Fibres 279
13.1 Dyeing with Direct Dyes 279
13.1.1 The Effect of Salt and Soda Ash in Dyeing with Direct Dyes 279
13.1.2 The Effect of Pretreatment Process and Cellulosic Fibre Type on Dyeing
with Direct Dyes 279
13.1.3 The Effect of Salt Amount, Soda ash Amount and Liquor Ratio on Dyeing Result
in Dyeing with Direct Dyes 280
13.1.4 Effect of Water Quality on Dyeing Result in Dyeing with Direct Dyes 281
13.1.5 Testing the HT Stability of Direct Dyes 281
13.1.6 Dyeing with Direct Dyes in Standing Bath 282
13.1.7 Determination of Migration Capabilities of Different Types of Direct Dyes 282
13.1.8 Combination Dyeing with Direct Dyes Suitable and Unsuitable for
Combination 283
13.1.9 Fastness Improvement Processes After Dyeing with Direct Dyes 283
13.1.10 The Effects of Various Parameters on Dyeing Result in Dyeing with Direct Dyes by
Pad-batch Method 284
13.2 Dyeing with Vat Dyes 285
13.2.1 Effect of Physical Form and Particle Size of Vat Dye on Dyeing Result 285
13.2.2 Dyeing with IK, IW and IN Type Vat Dyes 285
13.2.3 Dyeing with Vat Dyes in Open and Closed Systems 286
13.2.4 The Effect of Vatting Method on Dyeing Result in Dyeing with Vat Dyes 287
13.2.5 The Effect of Hydrosulphite, Alkali and Salt Amount and Dyeing Temperature on
Dyeing Result in Dyeing with Vat Dyes 287
13.2.6 Post-treatments After Dyeing with Vat Dyes 288
13.2.7 Pad-batch Dyeing with Vat Dyes 288
13.3 Dyeing with Indigo Dye 289
13.4 Dyeing with Sulphur Dyes 289
13.4.1 Dyeing with Normal Sulphur Dyes 289
13.4.2 Comparison of the Performance of Reducing Agent Alternatives for Dyeing with
Sulphur Dyes 290
13.4.3 Dyeing with Water-soluble Sulphur Dyes 291
13.4.4 Dyeing with Sulphur Dyes by Impregnation Method 291
13.5 Dyeing with Reactive Dyes 292
13.5.1 Dyeing with Reactive Dyes By Exhaust Method 292
13.5.1.1 The Effect of Dyeing Method on Dyeing Result in Dyeing with Reactive Dyes 292
13.5.1.2 The Effect of Alkali Type Used in Dyeing with Reactive Dyes 293
13.5.1.3 The Effect of Salt Type in Dyeing with Reactive Dyes 294
13.5.1.4 Dyeing with Reactive Dyes Requiring Low Salt Usage 295
13.5.1.5 The Effect of Fabric Knit Structure in Dyeing with Reactive Dyes 295
13.5.1.6 Bleaching of Cotton Fabrics in The Same Bath After Dyeing with Reactive
Dyes 296
13.5.1.7 Use of Sequestering Agent in Dyeing with Reactive Dyes 297
13.5.1.8 Investigation of the Effect of Various Parameters on Washing Processes After
Dyeing with Reactive Dyes 298
13.5.1.9 The Effect of Post-treatments on Fastness After Dyeing with Reactive Dyes 299
13.5.1.10 Comparison of Dyeing Properties of Linen and Regenerated Cellulose Fibres with
Cotton Fibres by Reactive Dyes 300
13.5.1.11 Effect of Cellulase Enzymatic Treatment on the Dyeability of Cellulosic Fibres
with Reactive Dyes 300
13.5.2 Dyeing by Impregnation Method with Reactive Dyes 301
13.5.2.1 Pad-batch Dyeing 301
13.5.2.2 Pad-steam Dyeing 302
13.5.2.3 Dyeing by Thermofixing (Pad-dry-thermofix) Method 304
13.5.2.4 Pad-dry (Impregnation-drying) Dyeing 305
13.5.2.5 Dyeing by Wet Fixation Method 305
13.6 Dyeing with Other Dyes 306
13.6.1 Dyeing with Indosol Dyes 306
13.6.2 Dyeing with Naphthol Dyes 307
13.6.3 Dyeing with Vat-leucoester (Indigosol, Anthrasol) Dyes 308
13.6.3.1 Dyeing with Vat-leucoester Dyes by One-bath Nitrite Method 308
13.6.3.2 Dyeing with Vat-leucoester Dyes by Two-bath Nitrite Method 308
13.6.3.3 Dyeing by Impregnation (Semi-continuous and Continuous) Method with
Vat-leucoester Dyes 309
13.6.4 Dyeing with Cationic (Basic) Dyes 309
13.6.5 Dyeing with Pigment 310
13.6.5.1 Dyeing with Pigment by Impregnation Method 310
13.6.5.2 Combination of Dyeing with Pigment by Impregnation and Wrinkle-free
Finishing 311
13.6.5.3 Dyeing with Pigment by Exhaust Method 311
13.6.5.4 Obtaining Bleeding Dyeing with Pigment 312
Index 313
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