Description
Scale, or deposits, can build up in the wellbore tubulars and other downhole components, causing considerable damage to the life of the well. Infrastructure provides the support for the wells system and with oil and gas consumption on the rise and transportation required to feed that demand, all petroleum and pipeline engineers must have accurate corrosion and scaling information. The Fundamentals of Corrosion and Scaling for Petroleum and Environmental Engineers will provide the quick knowledge that engineers need to not only enhance the reliability of corrosion and scale control technologies but also manage scale deposits, prevent fatigue and ensure equipment integrity.
Table of Contents
AcknowledgmentsPrefaceForeword1 Introduction to Corrosion 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Definition of Corrosion 1.3 Introduction to Electrochemistry 1.4 Corrosion Agents in Drilling and Producing Operations 1.5 Requirements for Electrochemical Corrosion 1.5.1 Components of Electrochemical Corrosion 1.6 Chemistry of Corrosion and Electromotive Force Series 1.6.1 Actual Electrode Potentials 1.7 Galvanic Series 1.7.1 Cathode/Anode Areal Ratio 1.7.2 Polarization 1.8 Corrosion of Steel 1.9 Gaseous Corrodants 1.9.1 Oxygen 1.9.2 Hydrogen Sulfide 1.9.3 Carbon Dioxide 1.9.4 Alkalinity of Environment 1.10 Cathodic Protection 1.11 Role of Bacteria in Corrosion 1.12 Corrosion in Gas-Condensate Wells 1.13 Corrosion Rate Measurement Units2 Types of Corrosion 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Sweet Corrosion 2.3 Sour Corrosion 2.4 Classes of Corrosion 2.4.1 Stress-Induced Corrosion 2.5 Types of Cracking in Drilling and Producing Environments 2.5.1 Hydrogen Embrittlement (Sulfide Cracking) 2.5.2 Hydrogen Blistering 2.5.3 Corrosion Fatigue3 Microbial Corrosion 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Microbial Growth and Metabolism 3.2 Microbes Associated with Oil field Corrosion 3.3 Microbial Interaction with Produced Oil 3.4 Microorganisms in Corrosion 3.4.1 Prokaryotes 3.4.2 Eukaryotes 3.5 Different Mechanisms of Microbial Corrosion 3.6 Corrosion Inhibition by Bacteria 3.7 Microbial Corrosion Control4 Corrosion Control and Detection 4.1 Introduction to Corrosion Control 4.2 Cathodic Protection 4.3 Conditions for the Steady State or Limiting Corrosion Rate 4.3.1 Dangerous Inhibitors 4.4 Inhibitors and Passivators 4.4.1 Classification of Inhibitors 4.5 Coating 4.6 Detection of Corrosion 4.6.1 Chemical Tests 4.6.2 Microbial Tests 4.6.3 Electrochemical Tests 4.6.4 Pipeline Tests 4.7 Measurement of Corrosion 4.7.1 Visual Inspection 4.7.2 Caliper Surveys 4.7.3 Casing Thickness Logs 4.7.4 Radiography 4.8 Nondestructive Test Methods 4.8.1 Metal Loss Rate Tests Using Coupons 4.8.2 Other Corrosion Rate Monitors5 Casing and Pipeline Corrosion 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Types of Casing 5.2.1 Cassion Pipe 5.2.2 Conductor Pipe 5.2.3 Surface Casing 5.2.4 Intermediate Casing 5.2.5 Production Casing 5.2.6 Liners 5.3 Corrosion of Steel 5.3.1 External Casing Corrosion 5.3.2 Casing Corrosion Inspection Tools 5.4 Protection of Casing from Corrosion 5.4.1 Wellhead Insulation 5.4.2 Cementation 5.4.3 Completion Fluids 5.4.4 Steel Grades 5.4.5 Casing Leaks 5.4.6 Cathodic Protection of Casing 5.5 Interaction of Old with New Pipeline6 Scaling 6.1 Hardness and Alkalinity 6.2 Mineral Scales 6.2.1 Calcium Carbonate Scale 6.2.2 Sulfate Scales 6.3 Prediction of Scale Formation 6.4 Solubilities of Various Sulfates and Carbonates 6.5 Solubility of Calcite, Dolomite, and Magnesite and Mixture of These Carbonates 6.6 Relative Permeability Concepts 6.6.1 Effect of Water Hardness on Relative Permeability Curves 6.6.2 Effect of Water Chemistry on Oil Recovery 6.7 Scale Inhibition7 Water Quality Control 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Injection Suitability 7.2.1 Clay Swelling 7.2.2 Formation and Deposition of Insoluble Material in the Formation 7.2.3 Increase in Oil Saturation 7.2.4 Suspended Solids 7.2.5 Movement of Formation Fines 7.2.6 Sources of Suspended Solids 7.3 Corrosion 7.3.1 Some Causes of Waterflood Corrosion 7.3.2 Carbon Dioxide 7.3.
