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In 1579, Akbar, the Great Mughal, as the Indian emperor of the Turkish-Mongolian dynasty of Muslim origin was known in the West, invited some Jesuit theologians, bearing the sacred texts of Christianity, to his court. This was perhaps an unprecedented episode in history, as it was rather unusual for the ruler of an Islamic state to wish to host missionaries clearly motivated by specific evangelical intentions.
Indeed, Muslims firmly believe that Islam is the natural religion of man, and, as such, their consequent disinterest in other faiths is a continuous thread running through many countries of Islamic influence. Despite inevitable difficulties, the Church has never given up on its work of promoting Christianity; a right, however, that could hardly be recognised by a sultan.
The precise purpose of this volume is to identify the reasons that led a Muslim emperor, such as Akbar, to request the presence of Jesuits at his own court. In the wake of blinding and misleading optimism in the West, there was talk of the Great Mughal's imminent conversion to Christianity. In reality, the reasons behind his invitation were anything but this, though they were still somewhat surprising.
Contents
List of Illustrations 10
Foreword 11
Preface to the Italian Edition 15
Introduction 19
1. The Jesuits at the Mughal Court: An Atypical Mission 23 Portuguese and missionaries in India 23
The surprising initiative 25
Theological disputes 26
The sovereign as master and guide of the faithful 28
The translation office 31
The role of the Jesuits 33
Akbar and the Portuguese 34
Akbar and Christianity 38
2. The First and Second Missions at Akbar's Court Choice of missionaries 48
Journey to Fatehpur Sikri 49
Initial stages of the first mission 52
The first theological debates 53
Akbar's cordial hospitality The Jesuits and Abu'l-Fadl Akbar changes his attitude The Kabul campaign 60
Last stages of the first mission
The conflict between the Mughals and the Portuguese Mughal embassy in Europe and the departure of Monserrate 63
Acquaviva's last period in Fatehpur Sikri 64
The second mission 65
Akbar's invitation and the beginning of the mission Sudden conclusion of the mission 68
3. Akbar and Religion
The Jesuits and the conversion of the Great Mughal Distortion of information 78
A miracle for conversion
81 Akbar's religious policy 82
A religious policy inspired by the Sufi principle of Sulh-i-kul 84
Akbar's antinomianism 86
The relativization of Islam 88 The contribution of the Jesuits 89 Muhammad and the Koran 91
4. The Third Jesuit Mission at Akbar's Court Request for new missionaries 100 Missionary personnel 102
Jerome Xavier 102 Manoel Pinheiro 104 Bento de Go?is 104
Journey to Akbar's court 105
Religious freedom in Mughal India 107 In the emperor's entourage 109
Jerome Xavier: A Jesuit courtier to the Mughals Journey to Kashmir 112
The military campaign in the Deccan 114
The last years of Akbar 118
The Christian communities of Lahore and Agra Rebellion of Prince Salim 119
Akbar's death 119
End of the Mughal mission 121
5. Missionary Activities Resistance to conversion 128
The Hindus 128
The Muslims 129
Missionary methods 132
Christian subjects in Mughal painting 134
The use of sacred images as a useful tool for religious instruction 135
The Jesuits and the defence of sacred images 136
The Great Mughal's interest in the realistic style 137 Christian art at the service of the sovereign's
legitimization 139
Jesus and the Apostles 141
A Christian literature in Persian 143 A 'Life of Jesus' in Persian 145
Xavier's anti-Islamic apologetics 146
The Holy Trinity and the Divinity of Christ The accusation of tahrif 149
'Islamic superiority'? 150
Muhammad: 'Seal of Prophecy'?
6. Conclusion 165
Bibliography 169
Index 181
