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Contents
Preface xv
1 Fundamental Concepts 1
Simple Food Chain Theory 2
Ecological Pyramids 3
Recycling and the Microbial Loop 6
Food Chain Magnification 9
Food Webs 10
Food Webs and Ecosystem Stability 12
Questions 13
References 15
2 Photosynthesis 17
Light Limitation of Photosynthesis 18
Nutrient Limitation of Photosynthesis 23
Nutrient-Enrichment Experiments 27
Long Island Bays 30
Canadian Experimental Lakes 32
Nitrogen Versus Phosphorus Limitation 33
Questions 37
References 39
3 Physical Factors Affecting Production 43
Physical Properties of Water 43
Water Column Stability and Overturning 45
The Importance of Overturning 48
Seasonal Production Cycles 49
Trophic Status 50
Susceptibility of Systems to Oxygen Depletion 51
Estuaries—A Special Case 52
Chesapeake Bay 55
The Gulf of Mexico Hypoxic Zone 64
Questions 67
References 69
4 Cultural Eutrophication Case Studies 71
Case Study 1. Lake Washington 72
History of Eutrophication 73
Effects of Sewage Diversion 76
Nutrient Limitation 79
Oxygen Depletion 81
Water Clarity 83
Cyanobacteria 84
Theoretical Predictions 85
Case Study 2. Lake Erie 88
The Destruction of Fish Spawning and Nursery Grounds as a Result of Land Use Modifications 90
The Depletion of Fish Stocks Due to Overfishing 90
The Creation of Anoxic Bottom Water Conditions Due to Cultural Eutrophication 93
The Disposal of Toxic Wastes 94
Sediment in Land Runoff 97
Contamination of Nearshore Areas with Sewage Wastes 97
Remedial Efforts 99
Toxic Substances 99
Eutrophication 100
Prospects for Lake Erie 106
Case Study 3. Kaneohe Bay 116
Physical Setting 116
The Coral Reefs 117
Urbanization of the Watershed 117
Changes in Land Runoff 118
Sewage Disposal 120
Effects of Sewage Disposal 121
Response to Sewage Diversion 123
Current Status and Prospects for Kaneohe Bay 126
Questions 128
References 130
5 Nonpoint-Source Pollution 137
Definitions 137
Composition of Land Runoff 138
Types of Sewer Systems 140
Correctives Measures 142
Use of Settling Basins 142
Ground Recharge Basins 143
Combined Sewer System Overflows 144
Minimizing Runoff 147
Summary 148
A Case Study—Lake Jackson, Florida 149
Correctives 157
Questions 161
References 161
6 Sewage Treatment 165
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Treatments 165
Secondary Treatment for BOD Removal 167
Trickling Filters 167
Activated Sludge 168
Pros and Cons of Trickling Filter and Activated Sludge Treatments 169
The Anaerobic Digester 170
Tertiary Treatment 171
Phosphorus Removal 172
Nitrogen Removal 173
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 174
Cost of Conventional Sewage Treatment 175
Land Application of Sewage 176
Results of Spray Irrigation Studies 178
Limiting Factors 185
Use of Sewage Sludge 186
Unconventional Sewage Treatment 190
Detergent Phosphates 191
Questions 195
References 196
7 Pathogens in Natural Waters 201
Sources of Pathogens 204
Types of Pathogens and Their Detection 204
Bacterial Pathogens 206
Protozoan Pathogens 212
Viral Pathogens 214
Helminths 219
Tests for Pathogens 220
Treatment of Public Water Supplies 225
Removal of Suspended Solids 225
Filtration 226
Chlorination 227
Alternatives to Chlorination 227
Impact of Treatment 228
Questions 229
References 230
8 Toxicology 235
The Role of Toxicology in Water Quality Management 235
Kinds of Toxicity 237
Sublethal Effects 237
Reproduction 238
Development and Growth 241
Behavior 243
Determination of Toxicity 244
Acute Toxicity Determination 245
Chronic Toxicity Determination 245
Median Survival Times 246
Incipient Lethal Levels 247
Sublethal Effects 248
Water Quality Standards 249
Acute Effects 249
Chronic Toxicity 252
Acute/Chronic Ratios 252
Toxicity to Plants 253
The Two-Number Criterion 254
Complicating Factors 255
Interactions with Harmless Substances or Conditions 255
Incorporation into Water Quality Guidelines 256
Conditioning and Acclimation 258
Interactions Between Toxic Substances 260
Public Health 263
Noncarcinogenic Effects 263
Application to Cadmium 266
Carcinogenic Effects 268
Protection of Wildlife 270
Commentary 271
Questions 272
References 274
9 Industrial Pollution 279
The Oxygen Sag 280
Innovative Strategies for Reducing Industrial Pollution 281
The Hawaiian Sugar Cane Industry 285
Sugar Cane Production: Field Operations 288
Sugar Cane Production: Harvesting 288
Sugar Cane Production: Factory Operations 289
Survey of Water Pollution Problems 291
Response to the EPA Survey 292
The Decline of the Industry 293
The Pulp and Paper Industry 295
Steps in the Production of Paper 298
Objectionable Characteristics of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent 301
Suspended Solids 301
Dissolved Organics 303
Toxic Substances 305
Wastewater Treatment 306
A Case Study—The Buckeye Cellulose Corporation Pulp and Paper Mill at Perry, Florida 307
Commentary 310
Questions 312
References 313
10 Pesticides and Persistent Organic Pollutants 317
Classification of Pesticides 319
Mode of Action 321
Pesticide Use 322
Public Health 323
Use of DDT to Control Malaria 323
Agriculture 325
Forestry 328
Pesticide Effects on Nontarget Species 329
Forest Spraying with DDT to Control Spruce Budworms in New Brunswick, Canada 329
DDD Treatment to Control Gnat Populations on Clear Lake, California 330
Exaggerated and/or Erroneous Charges Against Pesticide Use 331
The Destruction of Speckled Sea Trout in the Laguna Madre, Texas 332
DDT Reduces Photosynthesis by Marine Phytoplankton 333
DDT Residues of 5 ppm (Wet Weight) in the Eggs of Freshwater Trout Result in 100% Mortality of Fry 335
DDT Causes Cancer 337
Implications 339
Pesticide Persistence in the Biosphere and Food Chain Magnification 339
Pesticide Effects on Birds 343
Field Observations 344
Laboratory Studies 347
Summary of Pesticide Effects on Birds 350
Pest Resistance 350
Mechanisms of Resistance 351
The Cost of Pest Resistance 352
Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticide Use 352
Biological Control 353
Natural Predators and Parasites 353
Pathogens and Natural Toxins 354
Genetic Control 355
Resistant Plants 355
Sterile Males 356
Chemical Control 358
Integrated Pest Management 359
Commentary 361
EPA Hearings, January 13, 1972. Afternoon Session 363
Persistent Organic Pollutants 367
Polychlorinated Biphenyls 367
Problems with PCBs 369
Persistence of PCBs 371
Questions 373
References 375
11 Thermal Pollution and Global Warming 383
Power Plant Design 384
Water Quality Criteria 385
Cooling Water System Characteristics 386
Toxic Effects of Effluent Waters on Biota 387
Sublethal Effects 389
Commentary 391
A Case Study—The Florida Power and Light Power Plant at Turkey Point 392
The Study Area 392
The Power Plant 393
Effects on Biota 394
Modifications 396
Commentary 397
Correctives 398
Cooling Canals 398
Cooling Towers 399
Problems 400
Internal Plant Kills 401
Screen Impingements 401
Inner Plant Kills 404
Commentary 405
Correctives 407
Possible Beneficial Uses of Thermal Discharges 409
Cogeneration Power Plants 409
Agriculture 411
Aquaculture 412
Other Uses 416
Global Warming 416
Questions 430
References 431
12 Metals 437
The Question of Biological Magnification 440
Case Studies 442
Mercury 442
Production and Uses 442
Fluxes to the Environment 447
Speciation of Mercury and Toxicology 451
Acceptable Levels of Exposure 454
Minamata Bay—A Case Study 457
Seafood Consumption 463
Cadmium 465
Distribution, Production, and Uses 465
Emissions to the Environment 469
Natural Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 470
Anthropogenic Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 470
Toxicity 470
Itai-Itai Disease—A Case Study 473
Correctives and Prospects for the Future 476
Lead 477
Production and Use 477
Emissions 484
Toxicology 489
Commentary 492
Questions 495
References 497
13 Oil Pollution 505
Oil Discharges to the Marine Environment 506
Natural Sources 507
Marine Seeps 507
Anthropogenic Sources 508
Platforms 508
Atmospheric Deposition 508
Produced Waters 508
Pipeline Spills 509
Tanker Spills 509
Operational Discharges (Cargo Washings) 512
Coastal Facility Spills (Refined Products) 513
Atmospheric Deposition 513
Land-Based Runoff 513
Recreational Marine Vessels 514
Spills (Non-tankers) 514
Operational Discharges (Vessels ≥100 GT) 514
Operational Discharges (Vessels <100 GT) 514
Atmospheric Deposition 515
Aircraft Dumping 515
Commentary 515
The Genesis of Oil 516
Sedimentation 516
Metamorphosis 517
Migration 517
What Is Oil 518
Alkanes—Paraffins or Aliphatic Compounds 518
Cycloalkanes or Naphthenes 519
Aromatics 519
Toxicology 521
Oiling and Ingestion 521
Weathering 524
Lethal and Sublethal Effects 525
Human Health 528
Case Studies 529
Exxon Valdez 529
The Accident and Initial Containment Efforts 529
Cleanup 530
Fate of Spilled Oil 531
Effects on Organisms 532
Summary 536
Deepwater Horizon 536
Buzzards Bay 538
Summary 541
Correctives 542
Prevention 542
Cleanup 543
Offloading 544
Burning 544
Chemical Dispersal 545
Mechanical Containment and Cleanup 545
Sinking 546
Bioremediation 546
Summary 548
Oil Fingerprinting 548
Commentary 551
Questions 552
References 553
14 Radioactivity 559
Physical Background 559
Radiation Toxicology 562
The No-Threshold and Linear Dose-Response Hypotheses 564
Health Effect Estimates 566
Current Levels of Exposure 569
Importance of Certain Radionuclides 572
Effects on Aquatic Systems 572
Nuclear Fission and Fission Reactors 575
Nuclear Fusion 580
Radiation Releases by Power Plants 583
Routine Radionuclide Releases 583
Accidents 586
The NRX Accident 587
Windscale 588
The SL-1 Incident 589
The Fermi Reactor Accident 591
The Three Mile Island Incident 592
Chernobyl 593
Fukushima Daiichi 595
Summary 596
Waste Disposal 599
Types of Radioactive Waste 600
History of Disposal 600
The Search for Long-Term Disposal Sites 604
Transmutation 607
Uranium Mine Wastes 607
Decommissioning Nuclear Reactors 610
Commentary 612
Questions 613
References 615
15 Acid Deposition and Ocean Acidification 621
Acid Deposition 621
Acid Rain 622
History of the Acid Deposition Problem 623
Susceptibility of Lakes to Acid Deposition Effects 626
Acid Deposition Toxicology 628
Magnitude of Anthropogenic Emissions 630
Correctives 632
SOx Removal 633
Pre-Treatment 633
Conversion 634
Coal Gasification 634
Coal Liquefaction 634
Combustion 635
Fluidized-Bed Combustion 635
Lime Injection in Multistage Burners (LIMB) 635
Post-Combustion 636
Stack Gas Scrubbing 636
Electron Beam Method 636
NOx Removal 637
Pre-Treatment and Conversion 637
Combustion 637
Post-Combustion 637
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle 637
Comments 638
Legal Aspects 638
A Case Study—The Netherlands 640
Commentary 643
Ocean Acidification 644
Solutions 651
Questions 652
References 652
16 Groundwater Pollution 657
Reliance on Groundwater 658
General Aquifer Information 658
Overdrafting 659
The Extent of Groundwater Pollution 661
Septic Tanks 661
Saltwater Contamination 661
Fracking 662
Sewage 663
Mining Activities 663
Leaking Underground Storage Tanks 663
Toxic Chemicals 665
Illegal Disposal 667
Magnitude of the Problem 669
A Case Study—The Rocky Mountain Arsenal 671
Legal Considerations 676
RCRA 676
SDWA 678
CWA 678
CERCLA 679
Other Legislation 682
Enforcement 683
Correctives 683
Cleanup 684
Prevention 685
The EPA Groundwater Protection Strategy 687
Questions 689
References 690
17 Plastics in the Sea 695
The Nature of the Problem 695
Effects 697
Aesthetics 697
Ingestion 698
Entanglement 700
Ghost Fishing 701
Other Causes of Entanglement 703
Damage to Vessels 704
Correctives 704
MARPOL Annex V 705
Other Legislation 708
Lack of International Consensus 709
Degradable Plastic 710
Solutions Through Technology 710
Education 711
An Eclectic Solution 712
Questions 714
References 714
Units of Measurement and Abbreviations 721
Reference 723
Glossary 725
Index 000
