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Over the last several years, manufacturers have expressed increasing interest in reducing their energy consumption and have begun to search for opportunities to reduce their energy usage. In this book, the authors explore a variety of opportunities to reduce the energy footprint of manufacturing. These opportunities cover the entire spatial scale of the manufacturing enterprise: from unit process-oriented approaches to enterprise-level strategies. Each chapter examines some aspect of this spatial scale, and discusses and describes the opportunities that exist at that level. Case studies demonstrate how the opportunity may be acted on with practical guidance on how to respond to these opportunities.
Contents
1 Introduction to Energy Efficient Manufacturing 1
Barbara S. Linke and John W. Sutherland
1.1 Energy Use Implications 2
1.2 Drivers and Solutions for Energy Efficiency 3
References 9
2 Operation Planning & Monitoring 11
Y.B. Guo
2.1 Unit Manufacturing Processes 11
2.2 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of Unit Manufacturing Process 13
2.3 Energy Consumption in Unit Manufacturing Process 16
2.3.1 Basic Concepts of Energy, Power, and Work 16
2.3.2 Framework of Energy Consumption 17
2.4 Operation Plan Relevance to Energy Consumption 19
2.5 Energy Accounting in Unit Manufacturing Processes 20
2.6 Processing Energy in Unit Manufacturing Process 21
2.6.1 Cases of Processing Energy Modeling 21
2.6.1.1 Forging 21
2.6.1.2 Orthogonal Cutting 22
2.6.1.3 Grinding 24
2.6.1.4 Specific Energy vs. MRR 25
2.6.2 Energy Measurement 26
2.7 Energy Reduction Opportunities 26
2.7.1 Shortening Process Chain by Hard Machining 28
2.7.2 Substitution of Process Steps 28
2.7.3 Hybrid processes 29
2.7.4 Adaptation of Cooling and Flushing Strategies 29
2.7.5 Remanufacturing 30
References 30
3 Materials Processing 33
Karl R. Haapala, Sundar V. Atre, Ravi Enneti, Ian C. Garretson and Hao Zhang
3.1 Steel 34
3.1.1 Steelmaking Technology 35
3.2 Aluminum 36
3.2.1 Aluminum Alloying 37
3.2.2 History of Aluminum Processing 37
3.2.3 Aluminum in Commerce 38
3.2.4 Aluminum Processing 41
3.2.5 Bayer Process 42
3.2.6 Preparation of Carbon 44
3.2.7 Hall-Heroult Electrolytic Process 44
3.3 Titanium 45
3.3.1 Titanium Alloying 46
3.3.2 History of Titanium Processing 47
3.3.3 Titanium in Commerce 48
3.3.4 Titanium Processing Methods 49
3.3.5 Sulfate Process 50
3.3.6 Chloride Process 51
3.3.7 Hunter Process and Kroll Process 51
3.3.8 Remelting Processes 52
3.3.9 Emerging Titanium Processing Technologies 52
3.4 Polymers 54
3.4.1 Life Cycle Environmental and Cost Assessment 59
3.4.2 An Application of Polymer-Powder Processes 59
References 61
4 Energy Reduction in Manufacturing via Incremental Forming and Surface Microtexturing 65
Jian Cao and Rajiv Malhotra
4.1 Incremental Forming 66
4.1.1 Conventional Forming Processes 66
4.1.2 Energy Reduction via Incremental Forming 72
4.1.3 Challenges in Incremental Forming 75
4.1.3.1 Toolpath Planning for Enhanced Geometric Accuracy and Process Flexibility 76
4.1.3.2 Formability Prediction and Deformation Mechanics 85
4.1.3.3 Process Innovation and Materials Capability in DSIF 92
4.1.3.4 Future Challenges in Incremental Forming 95
4.2 Surface Microtexturing 97
4.2.1 Energy Based Applications of Surface Microtexturing 97
4.2.1.1 Microtexturing for Friction Reduction 97
4.2.1.2 Microtexturing Methods 101
4.2.1.3 Future Work in Microtexturing 114
4.3 Summary 115
4.4 Acknowledgement 116
References 116
5 An Analysis of Energy Consumption and Energy Efficiency in Material Removal Processes 123
Tao Lu and I.S. Jawahir
5.1 Overview 123
5.2 Plant and Workstation Levels 126
5.3 Operation Level 129
5.4 Process Optimization for Energy Consumption 134
5.4.1 Plant Level and Workstation Level 134
5.4.2 Operation Level 137
5.4.2.1 Turning Operation 137
5.4.2.2 Milling Operation 145
5.4.2.3 Drilling Operation 148
5.4.2.4 Grinding Operation 150
5.5 Conclusions 152
Reference 154
6 Nontraditional Removal Processes 159
Murali Sundaram and K.P. Rajurkar
6.1 Introduction 159
6.1.2 Working Principle 160
6.1.2.1 Electrical Discharge Machining 160
6.1.2.2 Electrochemical Machining 161
6.1.2.3 Electrochemical Discharge Machining 163
6.1.2.4 Electrochemical Grinding 164
6.2 Energy Efficiency 165
Acknowledgments 167
References 167
7 Surface Treatment and Tribological Considerations 169
S.R. Schmid and J. Jeswiet
7.1 Introduction 170
7.2 Surface Treatment Techniques 173
7.2.1 Surface Geometry Modification 174
7.2.2 Microstructural Modification 175
7.2.3 Chemical Approaches 179
7.3 Coating Operations 179
7.3.1 Hard Facing 179
7.3.2 Vapor Deposition 183
7.3.3 Miscellaneous Coating Operations 185
7.4 Tribology 189
7.5 Evolving Technologies 191
7.5.1 Biomimetics - Biologically Inspired Design 191
7.6 Micro Manufacturing 192
7.7 Conclusions 194
References 194
8 Joining Processes 197
Amber Shrivastava, Manuela Krones and Frank E. Pfefferkorn
8.1 Introduction 198
8.2 Sustainability in Joining 200
8.3 Taxonomy 203
8.4 Data Sources 205
8.5 Efficiency of Joining Equipment 208
8.6 Efficiency of Joining Processes 210
8.6.1 Fusion Welding 211
8.6.2 Chemical Joining Methods 214
8.6.3 Solid-State Welding 216
8.6.4 Mechanical Joining Methods 218
8.6.4.1 Mechanical Fastening 218
8.6.4.2 Adhesive Bonding 219
8.7 Process Selection 220
8.8 Efficiency of Joining Facilities 221
8.9 Case Studies 224
8.9.1 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 224
8.9.2 Friction Stir Welding (FSW) 228
Reference 235
9 Manufacturing Equipment 239
M. Helu, N. Diaz-Elsayed and D. Dornfeld
9.1 Introduction 239
9.2 Power Measurement 240
9.3 Characterizing the Power Demand 242
9.3.1 Constant Power 242
9.3.2 Variable Power 244
9.3.3 Processing Power 244
9.4 Energy Model 244
9.5 Life Cycle Energy Analysis of Production Equipment 246
9.6 Energy Reduction Strategies 247
9.6.1 Strategies for Equipment with High Processing Power 248
9.6.2 Strategies for Equipment with High Tare Power 249
9.6.2.1 Process Time 249
9.6.2.2 Machine Design 251
9.7 Additional Life Cycle Impacts of Energy Reduction Strategies 252
9.8 Summary 254
References 256
10 Energy Considerations in Assembly Operations 261
Camelio, J.A., McCullough, D., Prosch, S. and Rickli, J.L.
10.1 Introduction to Assembly Systems & Operations 262
10.2 Fundamentals of Assembly Operations 263
10.3 Characterizing Assembly System Energy Consumption 264
10.3.1 Indirect Energy 265
10.3.2 Direct Energy 266
10.4 Direct Energy Considerations of Assembly Joining Processes 268
10.4.1 Mechanical Assembly 268
10.4.2 Adhesive Bonding 269
10.4.3 Welding, Brazing, and Soldering 272
10.5 Assembly System Energy Metrics 275
10.6 Case Study: Heavy Duty Truck Assembly 280
10.6.1 Case Study Energy Consumption Analysis Approach 280
10.6.2 Assembly Process Categorization 281
10.6.3 Case Study Energy Analysis Results 285
10.6.4 Discussion and Recommendations 292
10.7 Future of Energy Efficient Assembly Operations 293
References 294
Appendix 10.A 296
11 Manufacturing Facility Energy Improvement 299
Chris Yuan, Junling Xie and John Nicol
11.1 Introduction 300
11.2 Auxiliary Industrial Energy Consumptions 303
11.2.1 Lighting 303
11.2.1.1 Lighting Technologies 304
11.2.1.2 Opportunities for Improving Energy Efficiency of Industrial Lighting 305
11.2.2 HVAC 307
11.2.2.1 HVAC Systems 308
11.2.2.2 HVAC Energy Efficiency Opportunities 310
11.2.3 Compressed Air 315
11.2.3.1 Compressed Air Technologies 316
11.2.3.2 Improving Energy Efficiency of Air Compressors 317
11.3 Industrial Practices on Energy Assessment and Energy Efficiency Improvement 321
11.3.1 Types of Energy Assessments 321
11.3.2 Energy Assessment Procedures 322
11.4 Energy Management and its Enhancement Approaches 323
11.4.1 Energy Management Description and Benefits 324
11.4.2 Establishing an Energy Management Approach 326
11.4.2.1 ISO 50001 336
11.5 Conclusions 337
References 338
12 Energy Efficient Manufacturing Process Planning 339
RuixueYin, Fu Zhao and John W. Sutherland
12.1 Introduction 339
12.2 The Basics of Process Planning 341
12.2.1 Types of Production 342
12.2.2 Process Planning Procedure 344
12.2.3 Process Planning Methods 346
12.3 Energy Efficient Process Planning 350
12.3.1 Energy Consumption and Carbon Footprint Models of Manufacturing Processes 350
12.3.2 A Semi-Generative Process Planning Approach for Energy Efficiency 351
12.4 Case Study 353
12.5 Conclusions 357
Reference 358
13 Scheduling for Energy Efficient Manufacturing 359
Nelson A. Uhan, Andrew Liu and Fu Zhao
13.1 Introduction 359
13.2 A Brief Introduction to Scheduling 360
13.2.1 Machine Environments 360
13.2.2 Job Characteristics 362
13.3.3 Feasible Schedules and Gantt Charts 362
13.2.4 Objective Functions: Classic Time-Based Objectives 364
13.3 Machine Environments 365
13.4 Job Characteristics 367
13.4.1 A Very Brief Introduction to Mathematical Optimization 368
13.4.2 A Time-Indexed Integer Linear Program for the Energy-Efficient Flow Shop Problem 370
13.4.3 Algorithms for Solving Integer Linear Programs 376
13.5 Conclusion and Additional Reading 377
References 379
14 Energy Efficiency in the Supply Chain 381
Thomas J. Goldsby and Fazleena Badurdeen
14.1 Supply Chain Management 381
14.2 Supply Chain Structure 382
14.3 Supply Chain Processes 385
14.3.1 Customer Relationship Management 387
14.3.2 Supplier Relationship Management 388
14.3.3 Customer Service Management 389
14.3.4 Demand Management 390
14.3.5 Manufacturing Flow Management 391
14.3.6 Order Fulfillment 392
14.3.7 Product Development and Commercialization 393
14.3.8 Returns Management 394
14.4 Supply Chain Management Components 395
14.5 Conclusion 396
References 396
Endnotes 400
15 Business Models and Organizational Strategies 401
Omar Romero-Hernandez, David Hirsch, Sergio Romero and Sara Beckman
15.1 Introduction 402
15.2 Reference Framework for Selection of Energy Efficiency Projects 404
15.2.1 Mission and Drivers 405
15.2.2 Set Level of Assessment 405
15.2.3 Recognize Opportunities and Risk 406
15.2.4 Select Projects 406
15.2.5 Implementation and Communication 407
15.3 Common Energy Efficiency Opportunities 408
15.3.1 Building Envelope 408
15.3.2 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) 409
15.3.3 Efficient Lighting 410
15.3.4 Efficient Motors and Systems 411
15.3.5 Building Management Systems 412
15.4 Stakeholders 413
15.4.1 Tenants and Owners 413
15.4.2 Regulators 414
15.4.3 Banks/Lenders 414
15.4.4 Energy Service Companies (ESCOs) 415
15.4.5 Business Models 415
15.5 Conclusions 417
References 417
16 Energy Efficient or Energy Effective Manufacturing? 421
S. A. Shade and J. W. Sutherland
16.1 Energy Efficiency: A Macro Perspective 422
16.1.1 Government Perspective 422
16.1.2 Company Perspective 423
16.2 The Basics of Energy Efficiency 425
16.3 Limitations of Energy Efficiency 433
16.4 Energy Effectiveness 436
16.4.1 Effectiveness - It's Up to the Decision Maker 438
16.4.2 Effectiveness - A Choice on Where to Invest 439
16.4.3 Effectiveness - Is An Action Really Worthwhile? 439
16.5 Summary 442
16.6 Acknowledgments 443
References 443
Index 445
