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基本説明
A rich introduction to the physical and geometric elegance of geologic structures within the Earth's crust and the ways in which these structures reflect the nature and origin of crystal deformation through time.
Full Description
Relates the physical and geometric elegance of geologic structures within the Earth's crust and the ways in which these structures reflect the nature and origin of crystal deformation through time. The main thrust is on applications in regional tectonics, exploration geology, active tectonics and geohydrology. Techniques, experiments, and calculations are described in detail, with the purpose of offering active participation and discovery through laboratory and field work.
Contents
P A R T 1 FUNDAMENTALS 1 CHAPTER 1 Nature of Structural Geology 2
Motivation and Context 2
Practical Applications 5
Field Work 7
"Deformation" is the Heart of the Matter 7
Architecture and Structural Geology 16
Plate Tectonics and Structural Geology 18
The Fundamental Structures 21
Concept of Detailed Structural Analysis 29
The Time Factor 32
CHAPTER 2 Displacement and Strain 34
Transformations 34
Displacement Vectors and Deformation 35
Kinematics 36
Deformation and Kinematics in Active Tectonic Settings 40
Translation 44
Rotation 53
Strain 59
Coaxial and Noncoaxial Strain 78
Three-Dimensional Strain Analysis 84
On to Dynamics 89
CHAPTER 3 Force, Stress, and Strength 90
Introduction 90
Dynamic Analysis 91
Force 95
Tractions 101
Stress 106
Determining Relationships between Stress and Strain 120
Conducting Deformation Experiments in the Laboratory 128
Evaluating Mechanical Behavior During Testing 138
Conclusions 147
CHAPTER 4 Deformation Mechanisms and Microstructures 148
Exploring at the Fine Scale 148
Crystalline Structure and the Strength of Solids 149
Slip Systems and Bonding 152
Deformation Mechanisms 157
Deformation Experiments 181
The BrittleDuctile Transition 188
A Few Final Thoughts 191
P A R T 2 STRUCTURES 192
CHAPTER 5 Joints 193
Definitions and Distinctions 193
Glimpse of Joint Formation in Response to Loading and Stress 201
Detailed Look at Individual Joint Surfaces 204
Growth of Joint Sets 212
Joint Spacing in Relation to a Single Bed 216
Joint Saturation and Joint In-Filling 223
Creation of Joints in the Laboratory 226
Influence of Pore Fluid Pressure on Jointing 230
A Microscopic Look at the Mechanics of Jointing 236
Examples of Interpreting Regional Joint Patterns 239
Opportunities in Fracture Analysis 247
CHAPTER 6 Faults 249
Introduction 249
Recognizing Faults: The Physical Character of Faults 251
Brittle Fault Rocks 260
Map and Subsurface Expressions of Faults 267
The Naming and Classification of Faults 272
Determination of Slip on Faults 278
Strain Significance of Faults 281
Mechanics of Faulting 286
Thrust Fault Systems 305
Normal Faulting 321
Strike-Slip Faulting 334
Concluding Remarks 343
CHAPTER 7 Folds 344
Incentives for Study 344
Anticlines and Synclines 351
Geometric Analysis of Folds 358
Transition from Geometry to Dynamics 383
Buckling 384
Flexural Folding 390
Kink Folding 397
Passive Folding 401
Regional Tectonic Folding 403
Conclusions 404
CHAPTER 8 Fault-Fold Interactions 405
Incentives for Even Further Study 405
General Model of Fault-Related Folding 407
Assumptions About Dip Domains and Fault-Related Folds 408
Fault-Bend Folds 409
Fault-Propagation Folds 414
Fault-Related Folding Created Through Stretching 428
Salt-Related Structures 433
Structural Inversion 443
Folds Associated With Strike-Slip Faulting 447
Role of Structural Development in Sedimentation 449
Structural Balance 452
Small-Scale Structures, and Scaling 459
Concluding Thoughts 461
CHAPTER 9 Foliation and Lineation 463
Nature of Foliation and Lineation 463
Nature of Cleavage 465
Microscopic Properties of Cleavage and Schistosity 472
Strain Significance of Cleavage 475
Relationship of Cleavage to Other Structures 487
Foliation 492
Lineation 501
Descriptive/geometric Analysis of Foliation and Lineation 511
Strain, Shearing, and Fabric Development 515
Estimating Strain 520
"Tectonite-Forming" Geologic Settings 526
On to Shear Zones 529
CHAPTER 10 Shear Zones and Progressive Deformation 530
The Nature of Shear Zones 530
Types of Shear Zones 540
Why Shear Zones Form, Thin, and Thicken 546
Strain in Shear Zones 548
Determining Sense of Shear 556
Fabric Development and its Relation to the Amount of Strain in Shear Zones 577
Inside the Ellipse: Progressive Deformation 586
On to Active Tectonics 598
CHAPTER 11 Active Tectonics 599
Structural Geology and Active Tectonics 599
Plan of Action for This Chapter 600
Western United States 603
The San Andreas Fault 606
The Los Angeles Basin 616
The Eastern California Shear Zone 627
Relation To Cascadia, American Northwest 649
The Basin and Range 656
The Wasatch Front 666
The Hurricane Fault 673
Finishing Up 677
Summing Up 680
P A R T 3 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS: HOW TO FUNCTION IN THE FIELD, AND HOW TO REDUCE THE DATA 683
A. Nature of Descriptive Analysis 684
B. Geologic Mapping 687
C. Mapping Contact Relationships 697
D. Identifying Primary Structures 706
E. Measuring the Orientations of Structures 711
F. Preparing Geologic Cross-Sections 718
G. Preparing Subsurface Contour Maps 726
H. Using Orthographic Projection 728
I. Carrying Out Stereographic Projection 735
J. Evaluating Rotation Using Stereographic Projection 751
K. Determining Slip on a Fault through Orthographic and Stereographic Projection 757
L. Carrying Out Strain Analysis 760
M. Determining the Relationship of
Faults to Principal Stress Directions 767
N. Carrying Out Joint Analysis 769
O. Engaging in Fault Analysis 778
P. Carrying Out Fold Analysis 779
Q. Deciphering Structure in Boreholes 785
R. Studying Shear Zones in the Field 790
S. Determining Focal Mechanisms for Earthquakes 793
REFERENCES 799
AUTHOR INDEX 823
SUBJECT INDEX 829
