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Human Neuroanatomy, 2nd Edition is a comprehensive overview of the anatomy of the human brain and spinal cord. The book is written at a level to be of use as a text for advanced students and a foundational reference for researchers, clinicians in the field. Building on the foundations of first edition, this revision looks to increase user-friendliness and clinical applicability through improved figures and the addition of illustrative case studies.
Written by James R. Augustine, with decades of experience teaching and researching in the field, Human Neuroanatomy, authoritatively covers this fundamental area of study within the neurosciences.
Contents
Preface xiii
About the companion website xv
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Nervous System 1
1.1 Neurons 1
1.1.1 Neuronal Cell Body (Soma) 2
1.1.2 Axon Hillock 3
1.1.3 Neuronal Processes - Axons and Dendrites 3
1.2 Classification of Neurons 4
1.2.1 Neuronal Classification by Function 4
1.2.2 Neuronal Classification by Number of Processes 4
1.3 The Synapse 5
1.3.1 Components of a Synapse 5
1.3.2 Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators 5
1.3.3 Neuronal Plasticity 6
1.3.4 The Neuropil 6
1.4 Neuroglial Cells 6
1.4.1 Neuroglial Cells Differ from Neurons 6
1.4.2 Identification of Neuroglia 6
1.4.3 Neuroglial Function 8
1.4.4 Neuroglial Cells and Aging 9
1.4.5 Neuroglial Cells and Brain Tumors 9
1.5 Axonal Transport 9
1.5.1 Functions of Axonal Transport 9
1.5.2 Defective Axonal Transport 9
1.6 Degeneration and Regeneration 10
1.6.1 Axon or Retrograde Reaction 10
1.6.2 Anterograde Degeneration 11
1.6.3 Retrograde Degeneration 11
1.6.4 Regeneration of Peripheral Nerves 11
1.6.5 Regeneration and Neurotrophic Factors 13
1.6.6 Regeneration in the Central Nervous System 13
1.7 Neural Transplantation 14
Further Reading 14
Chapter 2 Development of the Nervous System 17
2.1 First Week 19
2.1.1 Fertilization 19
2.1.2 From Two Cells to the Free Blastocyst 19
2.2 Second Week 20
2.2.1 Implantation and Two Distinct Layers of Cells 20
2.2.2 Primitive Streak and a Third Layer of Cells 20
2.3 Third Week 20
2.3.1 Primitive Node and Notochordal Process 20
2.3.2 Neural Plate, Groove, Folds, and Neuromeres 21
2.3.3 Three Main Divisions of the Brain 21
2.3.4 Mesencephalic Flexure Appears 21
2.4 Fourth Week 21
2.4.1 Formation of the Neural Tube 21
2.4.2 Rostral and Caudal Neuropores Open 22
2.4.3 Neural Crest Cells Emerge 23
2.4.4 Neural Canal - the Future Ventricular System 24
2.4.5 Neuropores Close and the Neural Tube Forms 24
2.4.6 Cervical Flexure Present 24
2.5 Fifth Week 24
2.5.1 Simple Tube, Complex Transformation 24
2.5.2 Five Subdivisions of the Brain Appear 24
2.5.3 Brain Vesicles Versus Brain Regions 25
2.6 Vulnerability of the Developing Nervous System 26
2.7 Congenital Malformations of the Nervous System 27
2.7.1 Spinal Dysraphism 27
2.7.2 Anencephaly 28
2.7.3 Microcephaly 28
Further Reading 29
Chapter 3 The Spinal Cord 31
3.1 Embryological Considerations 31
3.1.1 Layers of the Developing Spinal Cord 31
3.1.2 Formation of Ventral Gray Columns and Ventral Roots 32
3.1.3 Formation of Dorsal Gray Columns 32
3.1.4 Dorsal and Ventral Horns Versus Dorsal and Ventral Gray Columns 33
3.1.5 Development of Neural Crest Cells 33
3.1.6 Framework of the Adult Cord is Present at Birth 34
3.2 Gross Anatomy 34
3.2.1 Spinal Cord Weight and Length 34
3.2.2 Spinal Segments, Regions, and Enlargements 34
3.2.3 Spinal Segments in Each Region Are of Unequal Length 34
3.2.4 Conus Medullaris, Filum Terminale, and Cauda Equina 35
3.2.5 Termination of the Adult Spinal Cord 35
3.2.6 Differential Rate of Growth: Vertebral Column Versus the Spinal Cord 36
3.2.7 Relationship Between Spinal Segments and Vertebrae 37
3.3 Nuclear Groups - Gray Matter 37
3.3.1 General Arrangement of Spinal Cord Gray Matter 37
3.3.2 Gray Matter at Enlargement Levels 37
3.3.3 Spinal Laminae 38
3.3.4 Dorsal Horn 38
3.3.5 Intermediate Zone 38
3.3.6 Ventral Horn 39
3.4 Functional Classes of Neurons 39
3.4.1 Four Classes of Neurons in the Spinal Cord 39
3.4.2 Somatic Afferent Versus Visceral Afferent Neurons 40
3.4.3 Somatic Efferent Versus Visceral Efferent Neurons 40
3.4.4 Some Ventral Root Axons Are Sensory 40
3.5 Funiculi/Fasciculi/Tracts - White Matter 40
3.6 Spinal Reflexes 41
3.7 Spinal Meninges and Related Spaces 42
3.7.1 Spinal Dura Mater 42
3.7.2 Spinal Arachnoid 43
3.7.3 Spinal Pia Mater 43
3.8 Spinal Cord Injury 43
3.8.1 Hemisection of the Spinal Cord 43
3.8.2 Syringomyelia 44
3.9 Blood Supply to the Spinal Cord 44
Further Reading 44
Chapter 4 The Brain Stem 47
4.1 External Features 47
4.1.1 Medulla Oblongata 47
4.1.2 Pons 50
4.1.3 Midbrain 50
4.2 Cerebellum and Fourth Ventricle 50
4.2.1 Cerebellum 50
4.2.2 Fourth Ventricle 52
4.3 Organization of Brain Stem Neuronal Columns 52
4.3.1 Functional Components of the Cranial Nerves 52
4.3.2 Efferent Columns 54
4.3.3 Afferent Columns 54
4.4 Internal Features 54
4.4.1 Endogenous Substances 56
4.4.2 Medulla Oblongata 56
4.4.3 Pons 59
4.4.4 Midbrain 63
Further Reading 65
Chapter 5 The Forebrain 67
5.1 Telencephalon 67
5.1.1 Telencephalon Medium 67
5.1.2 Cerebral Hemispheres 68
5.1.3 Basal Ganglia (Basal Nuclei) 74
5.1.4 Rhinencephalon 77
5.2 Diencephalon 77
5.2.1 Epithalamus 77
5.2.2 Thalamus 78
5.2.3 Subthalamus 78
5.2.4 Hypothalamus 78
5.3 Cerebral White Matter 78
Further Reading 79
Chapter 6 Introduction to Ascending Sensory Paths 81
6.1 Receptors 81
6.2 Classification of Receptors by Modality 81
6.2.1 Mechanoreceptors 82
6.2.2 Thermoreceptors 83
6.2.3 Nociceptors 83
6.2.4 Chemoreceptors 83
6.2.5 Photoreceptors 84
6.2.6 Osmoreceptors 84
6.3 Classification of Receptors by Distribution and Function 84
6.3.1 Exteroceptors 84
6.3.2 Interoceptors 84
6.3.3 Proprioceptors 84
6.4 Structural Classification of Receptors 84
6.4.1 Free Nerve Endings 84
6.4.2 Endings in Hair Follicles 85
6.4.3 Terminal Endings of Nerves 85
6.4.4 Neurotendinous Spindles 87
6.4.5 Neuromuscular Spindles 87
6.5 Reflex Circuits 88
6.5.1 The Monosynaptic Reflex 88
6.5.2 Complex Reflexes 89
6.6 General Sensory Paths 89
6.6.1 Classification of Sensory Paths by Function 89
6.7 Organization of General Sensory Paths 89
6.7.1 Receptors 89
6.7.2 Primary Neurons 89
6.7.3 Secondary Neurons 91
6.7.4 Thalamic Neurons 91
6.7.5 Cortical Neurons 91
6.7.6 Modulation of Sensory Paths 91
Further Reading 92
Chapter 7 Paths for Pain and Temperature 95
7.1 Path for Superficial Pain and Temperature from the Body 95
7.1.1 Modalities 95
7.1.2 Receptors 96
7.1.3 Primary Neurons 97
7.1.4 Secondary Neurons 98
7.1.5 Position of the LST in the Brain Stem 99
7.1.6 Thalamic Neurons 100
7.1.7 Cortical Neurons 100
7.1.8 Modulation of Painful and Thermal Impulses 102
7.2 Path for Visceral Pain from the Body 102
7.2.1 Modalities and Receptors 102
7.2.2 Primary Neurons 103
7.2.3 Secondary Neurons 103
7.2.4 Thalamic Neurons 105
7.2.5 Cortical Neurons 105
7.2.6 Suffering Accompanying Pain 105
7.2.7 Visceral Pain as Referred Pain 106
7.2.8 Transection of Fiber Bundles to Relieve Intractable Pain 106
7.3 The Trigeminal Nuclear Complex 107
7.3.1 Organization of the Trigeminal Nuclear Complex 107
7.3.2 Organization of Entering Trigeminal Sensory Fibers 107
7.4 Path for Superficial Pain and Thermal Extremes from the Head 108
7.4.1 Modalities and Receptors 108
7.4.2 Primary Neurons 108
7.4.3 Secondary Neurons 110
7.4.4 Thalamic Neurons 111
7.5 Path for Thermal Discrimination from the Head 111
7.5.1 Modality and Receptors 111
7.5.2 Primary Neurons 111
7.5.3 Secondary Neurons 111
7.5.4 Thalamic Neurons 112
7.5.5 Cortical Neurons 112
7.6 Somatic Afferent Components of Vii, Ix, and X 113
7.7 Trigeminal Neuralgia 113
7.7.1 Causes of Trigeminal Neuralgia 113
7.7.2 Methods of Treatment for Trigeminal Neuralgia 113
7.8 Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia 114
Further Reading 114
Chapter 8 Paths for Touch, Pressure, Proprioception, and Vibration 117
8.1 Path for General Tactile Sensation from the Body 117
8.1.1 Modalities and Receptors 117
8.1.2 Primary Neurons 118
8.1.3 Secondary Neurons 118
8.1.4 Thalamic Neurons 120
8.2 Path for Tactile Discrimination, Pressure, Proprioception, and Vibration from the Body 120
8.2.1 Modalities and Receptors 120
8.2.2 Primary Neurons 123
8.2.3 Secondary Neurons 124
8.2.4 Thalamic Neurons 126
8.2.5 Cortical Neurons 127
8.2.6 Spinal Cord Stimulation for the Relief of Pain 129
8.3 Path for Tactile Discrimination from the Head 130
8.3.1 Modalities and Receptors 130
8.3.2 Primary Neurons 130
8.3.3 Secondary Neurons 130
8.3.4 Thalamic Neurons 130
8.3.5 Cortical Neurons 130
8.4 Path for General Tactile Sensation from the Head 131
8.4.1 Modalities and Receptors 131
8.4.2 Primary Neurons 131
8.4.3 Secondary Neurons 132
8.4.4 Thalamic Neurons 132
8.4.5 Cortical Neurons 132
8.5 Path for Proprioception, Pressure, and Vibration from the Head 133
8.5.1 Modalities and Receptors 133
8.5.2 Primary Neurons 133
8.5.3 Secondary Neurons 134
8.5.4 Thalamic Neurons 134
8.5.5 Cortical Neurons 135
8.6 Trigeminal Motor Component 135
8.7 Certain Trigeminal Reflexes 136
8.7.1 "Jaw-Closing" Reflex 136
8.7.2 Corneal Reflex 137
Further Reading 138
Chapter 9 The Reticular Formation 141
9.1 Structural Aspects 141
9.1.1 Reticular Nuclei in the Medulla 142
9.1.2 Reticular Nuclei in the Pons 143
9.1.3 Reticular Nuclei in the Midbrain 145
9.2 Ascending Reticular System 146
9.3 Descending Reticular System 149
9.4 Functional Aspects of the Reticular Formation 149
9.4.1 Consciousness 150
9.4.2 Homeostatic Regulation 151
9.4.3 Visceral Reflexes 152
9.4.4 Motor Function 153
Further Reading 153
Chapter 10 The Auditory System 155
10.1 Gross Anatomy 155
10.1.1 External Ear 155
10.1.2 Middle Ear 155
10.1.3 Internal Ear 156
10.2 The Ascending Auditory Path 158
10.2.1 Modality and Receptors 158
10.2.2 Primary Neurons 159
10.2.3 Secondary Neurons 159
10.2.4 Tertiary Neurons 161
10.2.5 Inferior Collicular Neurons 161
10.2.6 Thalamic Neurons 161
10.2.7 Cortical Neurons 161
10.2.8 Comments 164
10.3 Descending Auditory Connections 164
10.3.1 Electrical Stimulation of Cochlear Efferents 165
10.3.2 Autonomic Fibers to the Cochlea 165
10.4 Injury to the Auditory Path 165
10.4.1 Congenital Loss of Hearing 165
10.4.2 Decoupling of Stereocilia 165
10.4.3 Tinnitus 166
10.4.4 Noise-Induced Loss of Hearing 166
10.4.5 Aging and the Loss of Hearing 166
10.4.6 Unilateral Loss of Hearing 166
10.4.7 Injury to the Inferior Colliculi 166
10.4.8 Unilateral Injury to the Medial Geniculate Body or Auditory Cortex 166
10.4.9 Bilateral Injury to the Primary Auditory Cortex 167
10.4.10 Auditory Seizures - Audenes 167
10.5 Cochlear Implants 167
10.6 Auditory Brain Stem Implants 167
Further Reading 167
Chapter 11 The Vestibular System 171
11.1 Gross Anatomy 171
11.1.1 Internal Ear 171
11.2 The Ascending Vestibular Path 173
11.2.1 Modalities and Receptors 173
11.2.2 Primary Neurons 175
11.2.3 Secondary Neurons 177
11.2.4 Thalamic Neurons 179
11.2.5 Cortical Neurons 179
11.3 Other Vestibular Connections 180
11.3.1 Primary Vestibulocerebellar Fibers 181
11.3.2 Vestibular Nuclear Projections to the Spinal Cord 181
11.3.3 Vestibular Nuclear Projections to Nuclei of the Extraocular Muscles 182
11.3.4 Vestibular Nuclear Projections to the Reticular Formation 182
11.3.5 Vestibular Projections to the Contralateral Vestibular Nuclei 182
11.4 The Efferent Component of the Vestibular System 182
11.5 Afferent Projections to the Vestibular Nuclei 182
11.6 Vertigo 183
11.6.1 Physiological Vertigo 183
11.6.2 Pathological Vertigo 183
Further Reading 184
Chapter 12 The Visual System 187
12.1 Retina 187
12.1.1 Pigmented Layer 187
12.1.2 Neural Layer 187
12.1.3 Other Retinal Elements 188
12.1.4 Special Retinal Regions 189
12.1.5 Retinal Areas 190
12.1.6 Visual Fields 190
12.2 Visual Path 191
12.2.1 Receptors 191
12.2.2 Primary Retinal Neurons 193
12.2.3 Secondary Retinal Neurons 193
12.2.4 Optic Nerve [II] 194
12.2.5 Optic Chiasm 196
12.2.6 Optic Tract 197
12.2.7 Thalamic Neurons 197
12.2.8 Optic Radiations 198
12.2.9 Cortical Neurons 198
12.3 Injuries to the Visual System 200
12.3.1 Retinal Injuries 200
12.3.2 Injury to the Optic Nerve 201
12.3.3 Injuries to the Optic Chiasm 201
12.3.4 Injuries to the Optic Tract 202
12.3.5 Injury to the Lateral Geniculate Body 202
12.3.6 Injuries to the Optic Radiations 202
12.3.7 Injuries to the Visual Cortex 203
Further Reading 204
Chapter 13 Ocular Movements and Visual Reflexes 207
13.1 Ocular Movements 207
13.1.1 Primary Position of the Eyes 207
13.2 Conjugate Ocular Movements 207
13.2.1 Miniature Ocular Movements 208
13.2.2 Saccades 208
13.2.3 Smooth Pursuit Movements 209
13.2.4 Vestibular Movements 209
13.3 Extraocular Muscles 209
13.4 Innervation of the Extraocular Muscles 210
13.4.1 Abducent Nucleus and Nerve 211
13.4.2 Trochlear Nucleus and Nerve 211
13.4.3 Oculomotor Nucleus and Nerve 213
13.5 Anatomical Basis of Conjugate Ocular Movements 215
13.6 Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus 216
13.7 Vestibular Connections and Ocular Movements 216
13.7.1 Horizontal Ocular Movements 216
13.7.2 Doll's Ocular Movements 216
13.7.3 Vertical Ocular Movements 217
13.8 Injury to the Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus 218
13.9 Vestibular Nystagmus 218
13.10 The Reticular Formation and Ocular Movements 219
13.11 Congenital Nystagmus 219
13.12 Ocular Bobbing 219
13.13 Examination of the Vestibular System 219
13.14 Visual Reflexes 221
13.14.1 The Light Reflex 221
13.14.2 The Near Reflex 222
13.14.3 Pupillary Dilatation 223
13.14.4 The Lateral Tectotegmentospinal Tract 223
13.14.5 The Spinotectal Tract 223
13.14.6 The Afferent Pupillary Defect 225
Further Reading 225
Chapter 14 The Thalamus 227
14.1 Introduction 227
14.2 Nuclear Groups of the Thalamus 228
14.2.1 Anterior Nuclei and the Lateral Dorsal Nucleus 229
14.2.2 Intralaminar Nuclei 231
14.2.3 Medial Nuclei 233
14.2.4 Median Nuclei 233
14.2.5 Metathalamic Body and Nuclei 234
14.2.6 Posterior Nuclear Complex 235
14.2.7 Pulvinar Nuclei and Lateral Posterior Nucleus 235
14.2.8 Reticular Nucleus 235
14.2.9 Ventral Nuclei 236
14.3 Injuries to the Thalamus 238
14.4 Mapping the Human Thalamus 238
14.5 Stimulation of the Human Thalamus 239
14.6 The Thalamus as a Neurosurgical Target 239
Further Reading 240
Chapter 15 Lower Motor Neurons and the Pyramidal System 243
15.1 Regions Involved in Motor Activity 243
15.2 Lower Motor Neurons 243
15.2.1 Terms Related to Motor Activity 243
15.2.2 Lower Motor Neurons in the Spinal Cord 244
15.2.3 Activation of Motor Neurons 245
15.2.4 Lower Motor Neurons in the Brain Stem 245
15.2.5 Injury to Lower Motor Neurons 246
15.2.6 Example of a Lower Motor Neuron Disorder 247
15.3 Pyramidal System 247
15.3.1 Corticospinal Component 247
15.3.2 Corticobulbar Component 252
15.3.3 Clinical Neuroanatomical Correlation 255
Further Reading 256
Chapter 16 The Extrapyramidal System and Cerebellum 259
16.1 Extrapyramidal System 259
16.1.1 Extrapyramidal Motor Areas 260
16.1.2 Basal Ganglia (Basal Nuclei) 260
16.1.3 Afferents to the Basal Ganglia 265
16.1.4 Cortical-Striatal-Pallidal-Thalamo- Cortical Circuits 266
16.1.5 Multisynaptic Descending Paths 266
16.1.6 Common Discharge Paths 267
16.1.7 Somatotopic Organization of the Basal Ganglia 267
16.2 Cerebellum 267
16.2.1 External Features of the Cerebellum 267
16.2.2 Cerebellar Cortex 270
16.2.3 Deep Cerebellar Nuclei 271
16.2.4 Cerebellar White Matter 271
16.3 Input to the Cerebellum Through the Peduncles 271
16.3.1 Inferior Cerebellar Peduncle (ICP) 271
16.3.2 Middle Cerebellar Peduncle (MCP) 272
16.3.3 Superior Cerebellar Peduncle (SCP) 272
16.4 Input to the Cerebellum 272
16.4.1 Incoming Fibers to the Cerebellum 272
16.5 Cerebellar Output 273
16.5.1 From the Fastigial Nuclei 273
16.5.2 From the Globose and Emboliform Nuclei 273
16.5.3 From the Dentate Nuclei 273
16.6 Cerebellar Circuitry 273
16.7 Common Discharge Paths 273
16.8 Cerebellar Functions 274
16.8.1 Motor Functions 274
16.8.2 Nonmotor Functions 274
16.8.3 Studies Involving the Human Cerebellum 274
16.8.4 Localization in the Cerebellum 274
16.9 Manifestations of Injuries to the Motor System 275
16.9.1 Injury to the Premotor Cortex 275
16.9.2 Injury to the Basal Ganglia 275
16.9.3 Injury to, or Deep Brain Stimulation of, the Subthalamic Nucleus 276
16.9.4 Injury to the Cerebellum 277
16.9.5 Localization of Cerebellar Damage 278
16.10 Decorticate Versus Decerebrate Rigidity 278
16.10.1 Decerebrate Rigidity 278
16.10.2 Decorticate Rigidity 278
16.11 Epilogue 278
Further Reading 279
Chapter 17 The Olfactory and Gustatory Systems 283
17.1 The Olfactory System 283
17.1.1 Receptors 283
17.1.2 Primary Neurons 284
17.1.3 Olfactory Fila and the Olfactory Nerve 284
17.1.4 Olfactory Bulb - Secondary Neurons 285
17.1.5 Olfactory Tract 285
17.1.6 Medial Stria 285
17.1.7 Lateral Stria 285
17.1.8 Thalamic Neurons 288
17.1.9 Cortical Neurons 288
17.1.10 Efferent Olfactory Connections 288
17.1.11 Injuries to the Olfactory System 288
17.2 The Gustatory System 290
17.2.1 Receptors 290
17.2.2 Primary Neurons 292
17.2.3 Secondary Neurons 293
17.2.4 The Ascending Gustatory Path 293
17.2.5 Thalamic Neurons 293
17.2.6 Cortical Neurons 293
17.2.7 Injuries to the Gustatory System 294
Further Reading 295
Chapter 18 The Limbic System 299
18.1 Historical Aspects 299
18.2 Anatomy of the Limbic System 300
18.2.1 Olfactory System 300
18.2.2 Septal Area 300
18.2.3 Mamillary Bodies of the Hypothalamus 301
18.2.4 Anterior Nuclei of the Thalamus 301
18.2.5 Hippocampal Formation 301
18.2.6 Amygdaloid Complex 303
18.2.7 Cingulate Gyrus and Cingulum 304
18.2.8 Cortical Areas 306
18.3 Cyclic Paths of the Limbic System 306
18.4 The Human Limbic System: A Case Study 306
18.5 Descending Limbic Paths 307
18.6 Functional Aspects of the Human Limbic System 307
18.6.1 Emotion 307
18.6.2 Memory 308
18.7 Limbic System Disorders 308
18.8 Injuries to Limbic Constituents 309
18.8.1 Septal Area 309
18.8.2 Hippocampal Formation 309
18.8.3 Amygdaloid Complex 309
18.8.4 Seizures Involving the Limbic System 309
18.9 Psychosurgery of the Limbic System 309
18.9.1 Drug-Resistant Epilepsy 309
18.9.2 Violent, Aggressive, or Restless Behaviors 310
18.9.3 Schizophrenia 310
18.9.4 Intractable Pain 310
18.9.5 Psychiatric Disorders and Abnormal Behavior 310
Further Reading 310
Chapter 19 The Hypothalamus 313
19.1 Hypothalamic Zones (Medial to Lateral) 313
19.2 Hypothalamic Regions (Anterior to Posterior) 315
19.3 Hypothalamic Nuclei 315
19.3.1 Chiasmal Region 315
19.3.2 Tuberal Region 319
19.3.3 Mamillary Region 320
19.4 Fiber Connections 321
19.4.1 Medial Forebrain Bundle 321
19.4.2 Stria Terminalis 321
19.4.3 Fornix 321
19.4.4 Diencephalic Periventricular System 321
19.4.5 Dorsal Longitudinal Fasciculus 321
19.4.6 Anterior and Posterior Hypothalamotegmental Tracts 322
19.4.7 Pallidohypothalamic Tract 322
19.4.8 Mamillothalamic Tract 322
19.4.9 Vascular Connections 322
19.5 Functions of the Hypothalamus 322
19.5.1 Water Balance - Water Intake and Loss 322
19.5.2 Eating - Food Intake 322
19.5.3 Temperature Regulation 323
19.5.4 Autonomic Regulation 323
19.5.5 Emotional Expression 323
19.5.6 Wakefulness and Sleep - Biological Rhythms 323
19.5.7 Control of the Endocrine System 324
19.5.8 Reproduction 324
Further Reading 324
Chapter 20 The Autonomic Nervous System 327
20.1 Historical Aspects 327
20.2 Structural Aspects 328
20.2.1 Location of Autonomic Neurons of Origin 328
20.2.2 Manner of Distribution of Autonomic Fibers 329
20.2.3 Termination of Autonomic Fibers 330
20.3 Somatic Efferents Versus Visceral Efferents 331
20.4 Visceral Afferents 331
20.5 Regulation of the Autonomic Nervous System 333
20.6 Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System 333
Further Reading 334
Chapter 21 The Cerebral Hemispheres 337
21.1 Facts and Figures 337
21.2 Cortical Neurons 338
21.3 Cortical Layers 338
21.4 Cortical Columns (Microarchitecture) 343
21.5 Functional Aspects of the Cerebral Cortex 343
21.6 Cerebral Dominance, Lateralization, and Asymmetry 343
21.7 Frontal Lobe 343
21.7.1 Primary Motor Cortex 343
21.7.2 Premotor Cortex 344
21.7.3 Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) 345
21.7.4 Cingulate Motor Areas 345
21.7.5 Frontal Eye Fields 345
21.7.6 Broca's Area 346
21.7.7 Prefrontal Cortex 346
21.8 Parietal Lobe 347
21.8.1 Primary Somatosensory Cortex (SI) 348
21.8.2 Secondary Somatosensory Cortex (SII) 350
21.8.3 Superior Parietal Lobule 350
21.8.4 Inferior Parietal Lobule 352
21.8.5 Parietal Vestibular Cortex (2v) 352
21.8.6 Mirror Representation of Others' Actions 353
21.8.7 Preoccipital Areas 353
21.9 Occipital Lobe 354
21.9.1 Primary Visual Cortex (V1) 354
21.9.2 Secondary Visual Cortex 354
21.10 Temporal Lobe 354
21.10.1 Primary Auditory Cortex (AI) 354
21.10.2 Wernicke's Area 354
21.10.3 Temporal Vestibular Cortex 355
21.10.4 Midtemporal Areas Related to Memory 356
21.10.5 Anomia 356
21.10.6 Prosopagnosia 356
21.10.7 Psychomotor Seizures 356
21.11 Insula 357
21.12 Aphasia 358
21.12.1 Broca's Aphasia 358
21.12.2 Wernicke's Aphasia 359
21.12.3 Conductive Aphasia 359
21.12.4 Global Aphasia 359
21.13 Alexia 360
21.14 Apraxia 360
21.15 Gerstmann's Syndrome 360
21.16 Agnosia 360
21.17 Dyslexia 360
Further Reading 361
Chapter 22 Blood Supply to the Central Nervous System 365
22.1 Cerebral Circulation 365
22.2 Aortic Arch, Brachiocephalic Trunk, and Subclavian Vessels 366
22.3 Vertebral-Basilar Arterial System 366
22.3.1 Branches of the Vertebral Arteries 367
22.4 Blood Supply to the Spinal Cord 368
22.4.1 Extramedullary Vessels 368
22.4.2 Intramedullary Vessels 371
22.4.3 Spinal Veins 371
22.5 Blood Supply to the Brain Stem and Cerebellum 372
22.5.1 Extrinsic or Superficial Branches 372
22.5.2 Branches of the Basilar Arteries 372
22.5.3 Intrinsic or Penetrating Branches 375
22.5.4 Classical Brain Stem Syndromes 377
22.6 Common Carotid Artery 378
22.6.1 External Carotid Artery 378
22.6.2 Internal Carotid Artery: Cervical, Petrous, and Cavernous Parts 379
22.7 Blood Supply to the Cerebral Hemispheres 379
22.7.1 Internal Carotid Artery: Cerebral Part 379
22.7.2 Branches of the Internal Carotid Artery 379
22.7.3 Posterior Cerebral Artery 383
22.8 Cerebral Arterial Circle 383
22.8.1 Types of Arteries Supplying the Brain 384
22.9 Embryological Considerations 384
22.10 Vascular Injuries 384
22.10.1 Brain Stem Vascular Injuries 384
22.10.2 Visualization of Brain Vessels 384
Further Reading 384
Chapter 23 The Meninges, Ventricular System, and Cerebrospinal Fluid 387
23.1 The Cranial Meninges and Related Spaces 387
23.1.1 Cranial Dura Mater 387
23.1.2 Cranial Arachnoid 387
23.1.3 Cranial Pia Mater 388
23.1.4 Dural Projections 388
23.1.5 Intracranial Herniations 389
23.2 Ventricular System 391
23.2.1 Introduction 391
23.2.2 Lateral Ventricles 391
23.2.3 Third Ventricle 392
23.2.4 Aqueduct 393
23.2.5 Fourth Ventricle 393
23.3 Cerebrospinal Fluid 393
Further Reading 394
Figure and Table References 395
Index 399
