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Updated throughout, this highly readable best-seller presents basic concepts and practical material in each of the areas fundamental to modern surveying (geomatics) practice. Elementary Surveying's depth and breadth are ideal for self-study. MARKET: This title is suitable for Surveying courses offered in Civil Engineering departments. It also serves as a useful reference for civil engineers.
Contents
1 Introduction 1.1 Definition of Surveying1.2 Geomatics1.3 History of Surveying1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys1.5 Importance of Surveying1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys1.7 Surveying Safety1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies1.10 The Surveying Profession1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations1.12 Surveying on the Internet1.13 Future Challenges in SurveyingProblemsBibliography2 Units, Significant Figures, and Field NotesPart I I Units and Significant Figures2.1 Introduction2.2 Units of Measurement2.3 International System of Units (SI)2.4 Significant Figures2.5 Rounding Off NumbersPart II I Field Notes2.6 Field Notes2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes2.8 Types of Field Books2.9 Kinds of Notes2.10 Arrangements of Notes2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes2.12 Introduction to Survey Controllers2.13 Transfer of Files from Survey Controllers2.14 Digital Data File Management2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey ControllersProblemsBibliography3 Theory of Errors in Observations3.1 Introduction3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations3.3 Errors in Measurements3.4 Mistakes3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations3.6 Types of Errors3.7 Precision and Accuracy3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors3.9 Probability3.10 Most Probable Value3.11 Residuals3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors3.13 General Laws of Probability3.14 Measures of Precision3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors3.17 Error Propagation3.17.1 Error of a Sum3.17.2 Error of a Series3.17.3 Error of a Product3.17.4 Error of the Mean3.18 Applications3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations3.20 Weights of Observations3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment3.22 Using SoftwareProblemsBibliography4 Leveling-Theory, Methods, and EquipmentPart I I Leveling-Theory and Methods4.1 Introduction4.2 Definitions4.3 North American Vertical Datum4.4 Curvature and Refraction4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation4.5.1 Measuring Vertical Distances by Taping or Electronic Methods4.5.2 Differential Leveling4.5.3 Barometric Leveling4.5.4 Trigonometric LevelingPart II I Equipment for Differential Leveling4.6 Categories of Levels4.7 Telescopes4.8 Level Vials4.9 Tilting Levels4.10 Automatic Levels4.11 Digital Levels4.12 Tripods4.13 Hand Level4.14 Level Rods4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels4.15.1 Requirements for Testing and Adjusting Instruments4.15.2 Adjusting for Parallax4.15.3 Testing and Adjusting Level Vials4.15.4 Preliminary Adjustment of the Horizontal Cross Hair4.15.5 Testing and Adjusting the Line of SightProblemsBibliography5 Leveling-Field Procedures and Computations5.1 Introduction5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level5.3 Duties of a Rodperson5.4 Differential Leveling5.5 Precision5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits5.7 Reciprocal Leveling5.8 Three-Wire Leveling5.9 Profile Leveling5.9.1 Staking and Stationing the Reference Line5.9.2 Field Procedures for Profile Leveling5.9.3 Drawing and Using the Profile5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling5.11 Use of the Hand Level5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling5.12.1 Instrumental Errors5.12.2 Natural Errors5.12.3 Personal Errors5.13 Mistakes5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes5.15 Using SoftwareProblemsBibliography6 Distance MeasurementPart I I Methods for Measuring Distances6.1 Introduction6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements6.3 Pacing6.4 Odometer Readings6.5 Optical Rangefinders6.6 Tacheometry6.7 Subtense BarPart II I Distance Measurements by Taping6.8 Introduction to Taping6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories6.10 Care of Taping Equipment6.11 Taping on Level Ground6.11.1 Lining In6.11.2 Applying Tension6.11.3 Plumbing6.11.4 Marking Tape Lengths6.11.5 Reading the Tape6.11.6 Recording the Distance6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground6.13 Slope Measurements6.14 Sources of Error in Taping6.14.1 Incorrect Length of Tape6.14.2 Temperature Other Than Standard6.14.3 Inconsistent Pull6.14.4 Sag6.14.5 Tape Not Horizontal and Tape Off-Line6.14.6 Improper Plumbing6.14.7 Faulty Marking6.14.8 Incorrect Reading or Interpolation6.14.9 Summary of Effects of Taping ErrorsPart III I Electronic Distance Measurement6.17 Introduction6.18 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy6.19 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement6.20 Electro-Optical Instruments6.21 Total Station Instruments6.22 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors6.23 Computing Horizontal Lengths From Slope Distances6.23.1 Reduction of Short Lines by Elevation Differences6.23.2 Reduction of Short Lines by Zenith or Altitude Angle6.24 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement6.24.1 Personal Errors6.24.2 Instrumental Errors6.24.3 Natural Errors6.25 Using SoftwareProblemsBibliography7 Angles, Azimuths, and Bearings7.1 Introduction7.2 Units of Angle Measurement7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles7.4 Direction of a Line7.5 Azimuths7.6 Bearings7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings7.8 Computing Azimuths7.9 Computing Bearings7.10 The Compass and The Earth's Magnetic Field7.11 Magnetic Declination7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination7.14 Local Attraction7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems7.16 MistakesProblemsBibliography8 Total Station Instruments; Angle ObservationsPart I I Total Station Instruments8.1 Introduction8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument8.5 Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station InstrumentsPart II I Angle Observations8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments8.9 Observing Multiple Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method8.10 Closing the Horizon8.11 Observing Deflection Angles8.12 Observing Azimuths8.13 Observing Vertical Angles8.14 Sights and Marks8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line8.16 Balancing-In8.17 Random Traverse8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories8.19.1 Adjustment of Plate-Level Vials8.19.2 Adjustment of Tripods8.19.3 Adjustment of Tribrachs8.19.4 Adjustment of Plummets8.19.5 Adjustment of Circular Level Bubbles8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work8.20.1 Instrumental Errors8.20.2 Natural Errors8.20.3 Personal Errors8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations8.22 MistakesProblemsBibliography9 Traversing9.1 Introduction9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions9.2.1 Traversing by Interior Angles9.2.2 Traversing by Angles to the Right9.2.3 Traversing by Deflection Angles9.2.4 Traversing by Azimuths9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations9.6 Traverse Field Notes9.7 Angle Misclosure9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments9.9 Radial Traversing9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing9.11 Mistakes in TraversingProblems10 Traverse Computations10.1 Introduction10.2 Balancing Angles10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings10.4 Departures and Latitudes10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision10.7 Traverse Adjustment10.7.1 Compass (Bowditch) Rule10.7.2 Least-Squares Method10.8 Rectangular Coordinates10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations10.9.1 Balancing Angles by Adjusting Azimuths or Bearings10.9.2 Balancing Departures and Latitudes by Adjusting Coordinates10.10 Inversing10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys10.13 Use of Open Traverses10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems10.15 Traverse Computations Using Computers10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Measurements10.17 Mistakes in Traverse ComputationsProblemsBibliography11 Coordinate Geometry in Surveying Calculations11.1 Introduction11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle11.6 Intersection of Two Circles11.7 Three-Point Resection11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection11.11 SoftwareProblemsBibliography12 Area12.1 Introduction12.2 Methods of Measuring Area12.3 Area by Division into Simple Figures12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines12.4.1 Regularly Spaced Offsets12.4.2 Irregularly Spaced Offsets12.5 Area by Coordinates12.6 Area by Double Meridian Distance Method12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries12.8 Partitioning of Lands12.8.1 Trial and Error Method12.8.2 Use of Simple Geometric Figures12.8.3 Coordinate Method12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps12.9.1 Area by Counting Coordinate Squares12.9.2 Area by Scaled Lengths12.9.3 Area by Digitizing Coordinates12.9.4 Area by Planimeter12.10 Software12.11 Sources of Error in Determining Areas12.12 Mistakes in Determining AreasProblemsBibliography13 Global Navigation Satellite Systems-Introduction and Principles of Operation13.1 Introduction13.2 Overview of GPS13.3 The GPS Signal13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems13.4.1 The Satellite Reference Coordinate System13.4.2 The Geocentric Coordinate System13.4.3 The Geodetic Coordinate System13.4.4 Evolution of WGS84 Reference Frame13.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning13.5.1 Code Ranging13.5.2 Carrier Phase-Shift Measurements13.6 Errors in Observations13.6.1 Clock Bias13.6.2 Refraction13.6.3 Other Error Sources13.6.4 Geometry of Observed Satellites13.7 Differential Positioning 13.8 Kinematic Methods13.9 Relative Positioning13.9.1 Single Differencing13.9.2 Double Differencing13.9.3 Triple Differencing13.10 Other Satellite Navigation Systems13.10.1 The GLONASS Constellation13.10.2 The Galileo System13.10.3 The Compass System13.10.4 Summary13.11 The FutureProblemsBibliography14 Global Navigation Satellite Systems-Static Surveys14.1 Introduction14.2 Field Procedures in Satellite Surveys14.2.1 Static Relative Positioning14.2.2 Rapid Static Relative Positioning14.2.3 Pseudokinematic Surveys14.3 Planning Satellite Surveys14.3.1 Preliminary Considerations14.3.2 Selecting the Appropriate Survey Method14.3.3 Field Reconnaissance14.3.4 Developing an Observation Scheme14.3.5 Availability of Reference Stations14.4 Performing Static Surveys14.5 Data Processing and Analysis14.5.1 Specifications for Static Surveys14.5.2 Analysis of Fixed Baseline Measurements14.5.3 Analysis of Repeat Baseline Measurements14.5.4 Analysis of Loop Closures14.5.5 Baseline Network Adjustment14.5.6 The Survey Report14.6 Things to Consider14.7 Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys14.7.1 Instrumental Errors14.7.2 Natural Errors 37814.7.3 Personal Errors 37814.8 Mistakes in Satellite SurveysProblemsBibliography15 Global Navigation Satellite System-Kinematic Surveys15.1 Introduction15.2 Planning of Kinematic Surveys15.3 Initialization15.4 Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys15.5 Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys15.6 Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys15.7 Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys15.8 Real-Time Networks15.9 Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys15.10 Machine Guidance and Control15.11 Errors in Kinematic Surveys15.12 Mistakes in Kinematic SurveysProblems Bibliography16 Adjustments by Least Squares16.1 Introduction16.2 Fundamental Condition of Least Squares16.3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method16.4 Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment16.5 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities16.6 Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits16.7 Propagation of Errors16.8 Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors16.9 Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys16.9.1 Linearizing Nonlinear Equations16.9.2 The Distance Observation Equation16.9.3 The Azimuth Observation Equation16.9.4 The Angle Observation Equation16.9.5 A Traverse Example Using WOLFPACK16.10 The Error Ellipse16.11 Adjustment Procedures16.12 Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations16.13 Software16.14 ConclusionsProblemsBibliography17 Mapping Surveys17.1 Introduction17.2 Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys17.3 Map Scale17.4 Control for Mapping Surveys17.5 Contours17.6 Characteristics of Contours17.7 Method of Locating Contours17.8 Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems17.9 Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details17.9.1 Radiation by Total Station17.9.2 Coordinate Squares or "Grid" Method17.9.3 Offsets from a Reference Line17.9.4 Topographic Detailing with GNSS17.9.5 Laser Scanning17.10 Planning a Laser-Scanning Survey17.11 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation17.12 Selection of Field Method17.13 Working with Survey Controllers and Field-to-Finish Software17.14 Hydrographic Surveys17.14.1 Equipment for Making Soundings17.14.2 Locating Soundings17.14.3 Hydrographic Mapping17.15 Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys17.16 Mistakes in Mapping SurveysProblemsBibliography18 Mapping18.1 Introduction18.2 Availability of Maps and Related Information18.3 National Mapping Program18.4 Accuracy Standards for Mapping18.5 Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures18.6 Map Design18.7 Map Layout18.8 Basic Map Plotting Procedures18.8.1 Manually Plotting by Coordinates18.8.2 Plotting Using CADD18.9 Contour Interval18.10 Plotting Contours18.11 Lettering18.12 Cartographic Map Elements18.13 Drafting Materials18.14 Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems18.15 Migrating Maps between Software Packages18.16 Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping18.17 Sources of Error in Mapping18.18 Mistakes in MappingProblemsBibliography19 Control Surveys and Geodetic Reductions19.1 Introduction19.2 The Ellipsoid and Geoid19.3 The Conventional Terrestrial Pole19.4 Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature19.5 Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical19.6 U.S. Reference Frames19.6.1 North American Horizontal Datum of 1927 (NAD27)19.6.2 North American Horizontal Datum of 1983 (NAD83)19.6.3 Later Versions of NAD8319.6.4 National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD29)19.6.5 North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88)19.6.6 Future Reference Frames in the United States19.7 Transforming Coordinates between Reference Frames19.7.1 Helmert Transformation and Its Variant19.7.2 The Two plus One Approach19.8 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys19.9 The National Spatial Reference System19.10 Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network19.11 Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network19.12 Control Point Descriptions19.13 Field Procedures for Conventional Horizontal Control Surveys19.13.1 Triangulation19.13.2 Precise Traverse19.13.3 Trilateration19.13.4 Combined Networks19.14 Field Procedures for Vertical-Control Surveys19.15 Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values19.15.1 Reduction of Distance Observations Using Elevations 19.15.2 Reduction of Distance Observations Using Vertical Angles19.15.3 Reduction of Directions and Angles19.15.4 Leveling and Orthometric Heights19.16 Geodetic Position Computations19.16.1 Direct Geodetic Problem19.16.2 Inverse Geodetic Problem19.17 The Local Geodetic Coordinate System19.18 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations19.19 SoftwareProblemsBibliography20 State Plane Coordinates and Other Map Projections20.1 Introduction20.2 Projections Used In State Plane Coordinate Systems20.3 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection20.4 Transverse Mercator Projection20.5 State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD8320.6 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System20.6.1 Zone Constants20.6.2 The Direct Problem20.6.3 The Inverse Problem20.7 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System20.7.1 Zone Constants20.7.2 The Direct Problem20.7.2 The Inverse Problem20.8 Reduction of Distances and Anglesto State Plane Coordinate Grids20.8.1 Grid Reduction of Distances20.8.2 Grid Reduction of Azimuths and Angles20.9 Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations20.10 Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another20.11 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection20.12 Other Map Projections20.12.1 Oblique Stereographic Map Projection20.12.2 Oblique Mercator Map Projection20.13 Map Projection SoftwareProblemsBibliography21 Boundary Surveys21.1 Introduction21.2 Categories of Land Surveys21.3 Historical Perspectives21.4 Property Description by Metes and Bounds21.5 Property Description by Block and Lot System21.6 Property Description by Coordinates21.7 Retracement Surveys21.8 Subdivision Surveys21.9 Partitioning Land21.10 Registration of Title21.11 Adverse Possession and Easements21.12 Condominium Surveys21.13 Geographic and Land Information Systems21.14 Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys21.15 MistakesProblemsBibliography22 Surveys of the Public Lands22.1 Introduction22.2 Instructions For Surveys Of The Public Lands22.3 Initial Point22.4 Principal Meridian22.5 Baseline22.6 Standard Parallels (Correction Lines)22.7 Guide Meridians22.8 Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines22.9 Designation of Townships22.10 Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships22.11 Subdivision of a Township into Sections22.12 Subdivision of Sections22.13 Fractional Sections22.14 Notes22.15 Outline of Subdivision Steps22.16 Marking Corners22.17 Witness Corners22.18 Meander Corners22.19 Lost and Obliterated Corners22.20 Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys22.21 Descriptions by Township Section and Smaller Subdivision22.22 BLM Land Information System22.23 Sources of Error22.24 MistakesProblemsBibliography23 Construction Surveys23.1 Introduction23.2 Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys23.2.1 Visible Laser-Beam Instruments23.2.2 Reflectorless Total Stations23.2.3 Laser Scanners23.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control23.4 Staking Out a Pipeline23.5 Staking Pipeline Grades23.6 Staking Out a Building23.7 Staking Out Highways23.8 Other Construction Surveys23.9 Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments23.10 Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment23.11 Machine Guidance and Control23.12 As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning23.13 Sources of Error in Construction Surveys23.14 MistakesProblemsBibliography24 Horizontal Curves24.1 Introduction24.2 Degree of Circular Curve24.3 Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas24.4 Circular Curve Stationing24.5 General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles24.6 Computing Deflection Angles and Chords24.7 Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords24.8 Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords24.9 Setups on Curve24.10 Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords24.11 Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords24.12 Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve24.13 Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates24.14 Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations24.15 Circular Curve Layout by Offsets24.16 Special Circular Curve Problems24.16.1 Passing a Circular Curve through a Fixed Point24.16.2 Intersection of a Circular Curve and a Straight Line24.16.3 Intersection of Two Circular Curves24.17 Compound and Reverse Curves24.18 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves24.19 Spirals24.19.1 Spiral Geometry24.19.2 Spiral Calculation and Layout24.20 Computation of "As-Built" Circular Alignments24.21 Sources of Error in Laying Out Circular Curves24.22 MistakesProblemsBibliography25 Vertical Curves25.1 Introduction25.2 General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve25.3 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve25.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve25.5 Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation25.5.1 Example Computations Using the English System of Units25.5.2 Example Computations Using the Metric System25.6 Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola25.7 Curve Computations by Proportion25.8 Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve25.9 Machine Control in Grading Operations25.10 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve25.11 Designing a Curve to Pass through a Fixed Point25.12 Sight Distance25.13 Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves25.14 MistakesProblemsBibliography26 Volumes26.1 Introduction26.2 Methods of Volume Measurement26.3 The Cross-Section Method26.4 Types of Cross Sections26.5 Average End Area Formula26.6 Determining End Areas26.6.1 End Areas by Simple Figures26.6.2 End Areas by Coordinates26.7 Computing Slope Intercepts26.8 Prismoidal Formula26.9 Volume Computations26.10 Unit-Area or Borrow-Pit Method26.11 Contour-Area Method26.12 Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge26.13 Software26.14 Sources of Error in Determining Volumes26.15 MistakesProblemsBibliography27 Photogrammetry27.1 Introduction27.2 Uses of Photogrammetry27.3 Aerial Cameras27.4 Types of Aerial Photographs27.5 Vertical Aerial Photographs27.6 Scale of a Vertical Photograph27.7 Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph27.8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph27.9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph27.10 Stereoscopic Parallax27.11 Stereoscopic Viewing27.12 Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax27.13 Analytical Photogrammetry27.14 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments27.14.1 Basic Concepts in Stereoplotters27.14.2 Analytical Stereoplotters27.14.3 Softcopy Stereoplotters27.15 Orthophotos27.16 Ground Control for Photogrammetry27.17 Flight Planning27.18 Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems27.19 Remote Sensing27.20 Software27.21 Sources of Error in Photogrammetry27.22 MistakesProblemsBibliography28 Introduction to Geographic Information Systems28.1 Introduction28.2 Land Information Systems28.3 GIS Data Sources and Classifications28.4 Spatial Data28.4.1 Simple Spatial Objects28.4.2 Vector and Raster Formats28.4.3 Topology28.5 Nonspatial Data28.6 Data Format Conversions28.6.1 Vector-to-Raster Conversion28.6.2 Raster-to-Vector Conversion28.7 Creating GIS Databases28.7.1 Generating Digital Data from Field Surveys28.7.2 Digitizing from Aerial Photos with Stereoplotters28.7.3 Digitizing Existing Graphic Materials28.7.4 Keyboard Entry28.7.5 Existing Digital Data Sets28.7.6 Scanning28.8 Metadata28.9 GIS Analytical Functions28.9.1 Proximity Analysis28.9.2 Boundary Operations28.9.3 Spatial Joins28.9.4 Logical Operations28.9.5 Other GIS Functions28.10 GIS Applications28.11 Data SourcesProblemsBibliographyA Tape Correction ProblemsA.1 Correcting Systematic Errors in TapingB Example NoteformsC Astronomical ObservationsC.1 IntroductionC.2 Overview of Usual Procedures for Astronomical Azimuth DeterminationC.3 EphemeridesC.4 DefinitionsC.5 TimeC.6 Timing ObservationsC.7 Computations for Azimuth from Polaris Observations by the Hour Angle MethodC.8 Azimuth from Solar ObservationsC.9 Importance of Precise LevelingD Using the Worksheets on the Companion DiskD.1 IntroductionD.2 Using the FilesD.3 Worksheets as an Aid in LearningE Introduction to MatricesE.1 IntroductionE.2 Definition of a MatrixE.3 The Dimensions of a MarixE.4 The Transpose of a MatrixE.5 Matrix AdditionE.6 Matrix MultiplicationE.7 Matrix InverseF U.S. State Plane Coordinate System Defining ParametersF.1 IntroductionF.2 Defining Parameters for States Using the Lambert Conformal Conic Map ProjectionF.3 Defining Parameters for States Using the Transverse Mercator Map ProjectionG Answers to Selected ProblemsIndex
