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Full Description
For courses in Introduction to Philosophy, Critical Thinking, and English Composition. Thinking's comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach encourages a more complete and practical treatment for the student of how to think logically, critically, creatively, and persuasively.The authors wrote this book to give teachers and students a friendlier, more comprehensive, more systematic, more interdisciplinary, and thus a more effective text than any on the market.
Contents
1 What Is Thinking?OUR CULTURAL LEGACYWHY THINK?THINKING ACTIVITY 1.1: Things More Important Than ThinkingThoughts Richer Than GoldThinking as PossibilityThoughts AccumulateLife Without ThinkingThe MysteryToward a Definition: Thinking as CommunicatingBOX: The Centrality of ThinkingThinking as Writing: Clarity, Exactness, Awareness, RichnessTHINKING ACTIVITY 1.2: Thinking, Sensing, WritingThinking as Dialogue: Validation and InsightMISTHINKINGSUMMARYTHINKING CHALLENGES2 Personal BarriersENCULTURATIONSources of EnculturationBOX: Some Common American BeliefsReligion and EnculturationBOX: Spinoza: A Man of ReasonTHINKING ACTIVITY 2.1: Our Own EnculturationSELF-CONCEPTTHINKING ACTIVITY 2.2: The Idea of SelfTHINKING ACTIVITY 2.3: Letting GoEGO DEFENSESDenialProjectionRationalizationSELF-SERVING BIASESBOX: Other Attribution ErrorsBOX: Self-Serving Biases?THINKING ACTIVITY 2.4: Owning Up to Our Dark SideEMOTIONAL INFLUENCESAngerPassionDepressionTHINKING ACTIVITY 2.5: Five Thinking ErrorsSTRIVING FOR COGNITIVE CONSISTENCYSTRESSBOX: Signs and Symptoms of StressStress ManagementTHINKING ACTIVITY 2.6: Five Ways to Prevent StressSUMMARYBARRIER CHALLENGES3 SensingSENSUAL BEGINNINGSTHINKING ACTIVITY 3.1: Ideas: Innate or Learned?THINKING ACTIVITY 3.2: Our Personal Sense DeceptionsSHARPENING OUR SENSESTHINKING ACTIVITY 3.3: Seeing AnewPOWERFUL LISTENINGThe Paradox of Powerful ListeningHow to ListenTHINKING ACTIVITY 3.4: Developing an Action PlanSUMMARYSENSING AND THINKING CHALLENGES4 Brain and MemoryTHE MYSTERYTHINKING AND OUR BRAINTHINKING ACTIVITY 4.1: An Exercise in Mental DisciplineFood and DrugsSleepTHINKING ACTIVITY 4.2: Critical Reading Before We SleepOur Thinking PotentialBOX: Brain and MindTHINKING AND MEMORYThe Changing Nature of MemoryTHINKING ACTIVITY 4.3: Memories of ChildhoodForgettingBOX: Recall versus RecognitionWhy We ForgetHow to Improve MemoryTHINKING ACTIVITY 4.4: Using MnemonicsBOX: Memory PillsSUMMARYBRAIN AND MEMORY CHALLENGES5 Language: Our Thinking MediumTHINKING ACTIVITY 5.1: Language and ThinkingLANGUAGE AND OUR MINDThe Universalizing Power of LanguageThe Structuring Power of LanguageLANGUAGE AND SOCIETYTHINKING ACTIVITY 5.2: A Brief Mind SketchWhat Is a Metaphor?Metaphorical Models Control ThinkingBOX: Language, Lawyers, and LawmakersWord MeaningsTHINKING ACTIVITY 5.3: The Language in Our MindTHINKING ACTIVITY 5.4: Identifying Our Flame WordsWord Order Creates MeaningThe Power Parts: Noun and VerbThinking and the ContextClarityBOX: Clearly EmbarrassingGeneralizations and AbstractionsBOX: High SpecificityWordinessRedundanciesIllogicalitiesClichesSUMMARYLANGUAGE CHALLENGES6 FeelingFEELINGS AND THINKINGCULTURAL CONTEXTBusinessChurchFamilyTHE FORCE BEHIND OUR THOUGHTSBeneath the Rational SurfaceThe Importance of ToneTHINKING ACTIVITY 6.1: Feelings Beneath Our ThoughtsCONTROLLING EMOTIONSGENERATING SPEECHGENERATING WRITINGThe Inspiration MethodThe Recollection MethodThe Conscious Selection MethodFEELINGS TOWARD TOPIC AND AUDIENCETHINKING ACTIVITY 6.2: Evoking EmotionsOBSERVING FEELINGSSUMMARYTHINKING AND FEELING CHALLENGES7 Creative ThinkingMETAPHORICAL THINKINGTHINKING ACTIVITY 7.1: Making MetaphorsWHO CAN THINK CREATIVELY?THINKING ACTIVITY 7.2: Poetic ImpressionsBrainstormingStarburstingCOAXING CREATIVITYStep 1: DesireStep 2: Knowledge and SkillsStep 3: Edisonian EffortTHINKING ACTIVITY 7.3: PrepcreationStep 4: Fermentation and InsightStep 5: EvaluationSUMMARYBOX: Leonardo da VinciCREATING CHALLENGES8 OrganizingNATURAL/MENTAL ORDERSTopical OrderAnalogical OrderChronological OrderCausal OrderTHINKING ACTIVITY 8.1: Other Natural Orders?THINKING ACTIVITY 8.2: The Order of the ElementsMENTAL ORDERSTHINKING ACTIVITY 8.3: Other Mental OrdersClarity and Memory1. Clustering2. AnalyzingTHINKING ACTIVITY 8.4: Analyzing the Clusters3. Prioritizing4. Organizing Your Space5. Organizing Electronic DataUSING THE ORDERSTHINKING ACTIVITY 8.5: Creating a Seminal Structural AnalogyCurtain CallSUMMARYORGANIZING CHALLENGES9 Logical ThinkingDEDUCTIVE THINKING: THE SYLLOGISMCATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMSThree Kinds of PropositionsFour FiguresTHINKING ACTIVITY 9.1: Drawing the ConclusionTHINKING ACTIVITY 9.2: Finding Terms and FiguresValidity of Categorical SyllogismsTHINKING ACTIVITY 9.3: Identifying Valid Categorical SyllogismsTHINKING ACTIVITY 9.4: Using Venn DiagramsSorites THINKING ACTIVITY 9.5: Finding Multiple Syllogisms and False PremisesUndistributed MiddleIllicit ProcessTHINKING ACTIVITY 9.6: Finding Undistributed TermsThe Four-Terms FallacyEquivocationExistential FallacyBOX: The Importance of Agreed MeaningRULES FOR THE CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMTHINKING ACTIVITY 9.7: Identifying Invalid SyllogismsHYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISMSReasoning Errors in Hypothetical SyllogismsDISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISMSReasoning Error in the Disjunctive SyllogismVALID CONVERSIONSTHINKING ACTIVITY 9.8: Writing Valid ConversionsINFORMAL DEDUCTIVE FALLACIESThe Fallacy of DivisionCircular ReasoningThe Either/Or FallacyTHINKING ACTIVITY 9.9: Identifying the Either/Or FallacyBOX: Reductio ad AbsurdumINDUCTIVE THINKINGTHINKING ACTIVITY 9.10: Distinguishing Between Inductive and Deductive ArgumentsTHINKING ACTIVITY 9.11: Considering Past ErrorsANALOGICAL ARGUMENTBOX: Chuang Tzu's AnalogiesTHINKING ACTIVITY 9.12: Using AnalogiesCAUSATIONTHINKING ACTIVITY 9.13: Thinking About CausationINFORMAL INDUCTIVE FALLACIESHasty GeneralizationThe Fallacy of CompositionPost Hoc Ergo Propter HocExtravagant HypothesisBOX: Conspiracy TheoriesFalse AnalogySlippery SlopeOTHER REASONING FALLACIESThe Genetic FallacyAppeal to AuthorityAppeal to TraditionThe Is/Ought FallacyBOX: More Thoughts About OughtsBandwagon AppealAppeal to IgnoranceSUMMARYLOGIC CHALLENGES10 Scientific ThinkingTHE SCIENTIFIC METHODObservationHypothesisExperimentationVerificationScience and Other Ways of KnowingBOX: Copernicus and GalileoErroneous Operational DefinitionsOperational DebatesThe Limits of ScienceTHINKING ACTIVITY 10.1: Creating Operational DefinitionsTHINKING ACTIVITY 10.2: The Domain of ScienceDeterminism as FoundationHuman Beings and DeterminismBOX: Determinism and ProbabilityPROVING A THEORYCONTROLLED EXPERIMENTSQUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNNONEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNSEx Post FactoCorrelational DesignTHINKING ACTIVITY 10.3: Determining the Research DesignThe SurveyBOX: Opinion versus FactCase StudiesThe Rule of ChanceBOX: Sizeable EffectsBOX: Gambler's FallacyEXPERIMENTER BIASBOX: The Placebo EffectBOX: Cases of FraudPseudoscienceSUMMARYSCIENTIFIC THINKING CHALLENGES11 Persuasive ThinkingTHINKING ABOUT WHAT MOVES USKnowledgeObjectivity and HonestyBOX: Confucius, Christ, and KantBiasesLikabilityMotivation and PurposeThe Rational AppealThe Emotional Appeal: The Root ElementsTHINKING ABOUT WHAT MOVES OUR AUDIENCEDemographicsTHINKING ACTIVITY 11.1: A Demographic AnalysisValues and NeedsTHINKING ACTIVITY 11.2: Identifying Values and NeedsAdjusting Our GoalsTHINKING ACTIVITY 11.3: Motivation MountainORGANIZING FOR PERSUASIONStep 1: Establishing CredibilityStep 2: Acknowledging the Audience's PositionStep 3: Constructing Our RationaleTHINKING ACTIVITY 11.4: Recognizing the Other SideStep 4: Transplanting the Root ElementsStep 5: Asking for the ResponseDEFENDING OURSELVES AGAINST DECEITFUL PERSUASIONManipulative TacticsTHINKING ACTIVITY 11.5: Your Vulnerability to Fear AppealsErroneous AttacksAbuse of LanguageSUMMARYPERSUASION CHALLENGES12 Problem SolvingDEFINING THE PROBLEMThinking Activity 12.1: Forming More Precise Definitions Discovering CausesProblems Without a CauseREMOVING BARRIERSThe Myth of PerfectionThe Myth of GeniusGENERATING SOLUTIONSGathering InformationTHINKING ACTIVITY 12.2: Identifying Problem ComponentsBOX: Creating a Healthy Communication ClimateCreative ThinkingLet it RestTHINKING ACTIVITY 12.3: Functional FixednessSELECTING SOLUTIONSPreliminary EvaluationBOX: Chaotic SystemsPros and ConsBOX: Rejections on Minor GroundsTHINKING ACTIVITY 12.4: Weighing Pros and ConsSubgoal AnalysisTrial and ErrorWorking BackwardsBOX: Thinking BackwardsProblem-Solving TipsEVALUATING SOLUTIONSSUMMARYPROBLEM-SOLVING CHALLENGES13 EvaluatingThe Crucible of Critical DialogueTHINKING ACTIVITY 13.1: Using DialogueCritical MonologueThe Elegance of SimplicityThe Flattery of Imitation and DevelopmentThe Power of PredictabilityPerspective, Balance, and CompletenessThe Test of TimeTHINKING ACTIVITY 13.2: Does Time Always Test True?TESTING AGAINST OUR THINKING BASESPersonal BarriersPerceptions and MemoryLanguageFeelingsCreativity CheckOrganizationLogic CheckTHINKING ACTIVITY 13.3: Our Tone Toward Our ThinkingSUMMARYVALIDATING CHALLENGES14 Decision and ActionWHY ACT?DECISIONDifficulties in DecidingHow to DecideBOX: Changing Criteria: Putting on the GlovesTHINKING ACTIVITY 14.1: Feelings and DecisionsTHINKING ACTIVITY 14.2: Role-PlayingWhen to DecideThe Deciding MomentACTIONAFTER ACTIONSUMMARYDECISION AND ACTION CHALLENGES15 The Challenge to Go on ThinkingAppendix: Propositional LogicReferencesIndex
