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Provides a comprehensive guide to hydrogen technologies for sustainable energy production and practical deployment
With the growing urgency to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, decarbonize heavy industries, and diversify energy sources, hydrogen stands out as a versatile, clean energy carrier. Next-Generation Hydrogen Economy: Production, Storage, and Fuel Cell Technologies serves as an interdisciplinary roadmap for understanding and leveraging hydrogen’s vast potential. This timely volume meets the pressing need for a unified, research-informed resource that integrates hydrogen science, engineering, and policy—addressing both theoretical foundations and real-world implementation.
Written by experts in material science and energy research, Next-Generation Hydrogen Economy thoroughly examines hydrogen’s role in modern and future energy systems. The authors explore advanced production methods such as electrolysis, photocatalysis, and biological synthesis, while also detailing innovative storage technologies including metal hydrides, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs). Practical chapters on hydrogen fuel cells highlight applications in transportation, grid storage, and heavy industry, with in-depth discussions on commercialization, economic feasibility, infrastructure challenges, and safety standards. Bridging research and practice, the book also delves into AI-driven catalyst development, smart hydrogen cities, and other emerging areas in the fields.
Equipping readers with the knowledge to drive innovation and make informed decisions in the rapidly evolving hydrogen economy, Next-Generation Hydrogen Economy:
- Integrates multidisciplinary insights from material science, electrochemistry, energy systems, and public policy
- Highlights novel hydrogen production techniques including photocatalysis and biological routes
- Analyzes the techno-economic challenges and opportunities of industrial-scale hydrogen deployment
- Features clear diagrams and process flowcharts to illustrate complex technical concepts and up-to-date case studies and global policy frameworks to contextualize hydrogen adoption
- Discusses safety standards, regulatory compliance, and risk mitigation strategies for hydrogen technologies
Emphasizing cross-sectoral integration of hydrogen, Next-Generation Hydrogen Economy: Production, Storage, and Fuel Cell Technologies is ideal for graduate and postgraduate students in courses such as Renewable Energy Systems, Energy Materials, and Sustainable Engineering within physics, chemistry, and energy engineering programs. It also serves as a valuable reference for professionals in electrochemistry, clean energy R&D, and energy policy analysis.
Table of Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
About the Authors xvii
Disclosure of AI Use xix
1 The Hydrogen Paradigm – Past, Present, and Future 1
1.1 Introduction to Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier 1
1.1.1 Definition and Fundamental Properties of Hydrogen 1
1.1.2 Why Hydrogen Is Considered a Clean Energy Carrier 3
1.1.3 Role of Hydrogen in Decarbonization Efforts 6
1.2 Evolution of Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier 7
1.2.1 Early Uses of Hydrogen 7
1.2.2 Development of Hydrogen Production Technologies 8
1.2.3 The Rise of Fuel Cells and Space Applications 10
1.2.4 Hydrogen’s Transition to an Energy Vector in the Twenty-first Century 11
1.3 Why Hydrogen? Comparison with Fossil Fuels and Renewables 13
1.3.1 Hydrogen vs. Fossil Fuels 13
1.3.2 Hydrogen vs. Batteries 13
1.3.3 Hydrogen’s Role in the Renewable Energy Ecosystem 16
1.4 Current Global Hydrogen Economy and Future Roadmaps 17
1.4.1 Global Hydrogen Production and Consumption 17
1.4.2 Investments and Policies Driving Hydrogen Adoption 19
1.4.3 Key Players in Hydrogen Development 21
1.4.4 Future Hydrogen Economy Trends and Projections 22
1.5 Key Challenges in Hydrogen Adoption and Infrastructure Development 24
1.5.1 Scalability and Cost Barriers 24
1.5.2 Infrastructure Gaps 25
1.5.3 Technological Hurdles 25
1.5.4 Public Perception and Market Readiness 26
1.5.5 Environmental and Safety Concerns 26
References 29
2 Innovative Hydrogen Production Technologies 37
2.1 Introduction to Hydrogen Production Technologies 37
2.2 Electrolysis: Advances in PEM, Alkaline, and Solid Oxide Electrolysis 39
2.2.1 Introduction to Electrolysis 39
2.2.2 PEM Electrolysis 40
2.2.3 Alkaline Electrolysis 43
2.2.3.1 Recent Developments in Alkaline Electrolysis 44
2.2.4 Solid Oxide Electrolysis (SOEC) 45
2.2.4.1 Recent Developments and Future Outlook 47
2.2.5 Comparison of Electrolysis Methods 47
2.3 Photocatalysis and Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting: Harnessing Solar Energy for Green Hydrogen 48
2.3.1 Introduction to Photocatalysis and PEC 48
2.3.2 Photocatalysis: Harnessing Sunlight for Water Splitting 49
2.3.3 PEC Water Splitting 51
2.3.4 Challenges in and Potential Strategies for Solar Hydrogen Production 53
2.3.5 Future Directions in Photocatalysis and PEC 53
2.4 Thermochemical and Hybrid Processes: Sulfur-iodine Cycle, Metal Oxide Cycles 55
2.4.1 Introduction to Thermochemical Hydrogen Production 55
2.4.2 SI Cycle 56
2.4.3 Metal Oxide Cycles 58
2.4.4 Hybrid Thermochemical Processes 59
2.5 Biological Hydrogen Production: Algae, Bacteria, and Enzymatic Hydrogen Production 61
2.5.1 Introduction to Biological Hydrogen Production 61
2.5.2 Algae-based Hydrogen Production 62
2.5.3 Bacterial Hydrogen Production 63
2.5.4 Enzymatic Hydrogen Production 64
2.5.5 Comparison of Biological Hydrogen Production Methods 66
2.6 Comparative Analysis of Hydrogen Production Methods 68
2.6.1 Cost Analysis of Hydrogen Production Technologies 68
2.6.2 Efficiency and Scalability of Hydrogen Production 69
2.6.3 Scalability of Biological Hydrogen Production and Its Limitations 70
2.6.4 Environmental Impact and Sustainability 71
2.6.5 Water Usage and Energy Requirements for Different Hydrogen Production Technologies 71
2.6.6 Carbon Footprint and Sustainability of Large-scale Hydrogen Production 72
2.7 Summary and Future Directions 73
References 74
3 Advanced Materials for Hydrogen Production 83
3.1 Introduction to Advanced Materials for Hydrogen Production 83
3.1.1 Importance of Material Science in Hydrogen Production 83
3.1.2 Key Challenges in Material Development 86
3.2 High-performance Catalysts for Electrolysis 87
3.2.1 Role of Catalysts in HER and OER 87
3.2.1.1 Mechanisms of HER and OER in Electrolysis 88
3.2.2 Emerging Catalysts for Electrolysis 91
3.3 Nanomaterials and Composites for Enhanced Hydrogen Production 93
3.3.1 Role of Nanomaterials in Hydrogen Evolution 93
3.3.2 Advanced Composites for Electrolysis and Photocatalysis 96
3.4 Durability and Degradation Challenges in Catalyst Materials 98
3.4.1 Factors Affecting Catalyst Durability 98
3.4.2 Strategies to Improve Catalyst Stability 99
3.4.2.1 Protective Coatings and Support Materials to Prevent Degradation 99
3.4.2.2 Alloying Strategies and Nanostructuring to Enhance Durability 100
3.4.2.3 Self-healing and Regenerable Catalysts for Prolonged Efficiency 102
3.5 Cost-effective and Non-precious Metal Alternatives 102
3.5.1 Challenges with Precious Metal Catalysts 102
3.5.2 Development of Non-precious Metal Catalysts 103
3.6 Role of AI and Machine Learning in Material Discovery 106
3.6.1 How AI Accelerates Material Discovery 106
3.6.2 Examples of AI-optimized Hydrogen Production Materials 107
3.7 Summary and Future Directions 108
References 110
4 Hydrogen Storage – Challenges and Breakthroughs 119
4.1 Introduction to Hydrogen Storage 119
4.2 Physical Hydrogen Storage 122
4.2.1 Compressed Gas Storage 122
4.2.2 Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen Storage 124
4.3 Chemical Hydrogen Storage 128
4.3.1 Ammonia as a Hydrogen Carrier 128
4.3.2 LOHCs 130
4.4 Solid-state Hydrogen Storage 132
4.4.1 Metal Hydrides for Hydrogen Storage 132
4.4.2 MOFs and Carbon-based Materials 133
4.5 Safety Considerations and Risk Assessment in Hydrogen Storage 135
4.5.1 Safety Protocols in Hydrogen Storage Systems 135
4.5.1.1 Overview of Storage Safety Requirements for Different Hydrogen Carriers 136
4.5.1.2 International Regulations and Standards for Hydrogen Handling 136
4.5.1.3 Best Practices for Safe Storage, Transportation, and Refueling Infrastructure 137
4.5.2 Leakage Risks and Explosion Hazards 138
4.5.3 Mitigation Strategies for Hydrogen Storage Hazards 139
4.6 Future Directions in Hydrogen Storage 141
4.6.1 High-density Storage Solutions for Transportation and Stationary Applications 141
4.6.2 Integration of Hydrogen Storage with Fuel Cells and Renewable Energy Systems 142
4.6.3 Emerging Research in Hybrid Hydrogen Storage Combining Physical, Chemical, and Solid-state Approaches 142
4.6.4 Economic and Policy Considerations for Large-scale Hydrogen Storage Deployment 143
4.7 Summary and Future Perspectives 144
References 145
5 Hydrogen Fuel Cells – Types and Mechanisms 155
5.1 Overview of Hydrogen Fuel Cells 155
5.1.1 Basic Operating Principles of Fuel Cells 157
5.1.2 Advantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cells 158
5.2 Types of Hydrogen Fuel Cells 159
5.2.1 PEMFCs 160
5.2.2 SOFCs 162
5.2.3 AFCs 164
5.2.4 PAFCs 166
5.2.5 MCFCs 168
5.2.6 DMFCs 169
5.3 Mechanisms of Hydrogen Fuel Cells 171
5.3.1 Electrochemical Reactions in Hydrogen Fuel Cells 172
5.3.2 Role of Catalysts in Fuel Cells 172
5.3.3 Fuel Cell Efficiency and Performance 174
5.4 Fuel Cell Components and Design 177
5.4.1 Mea 178
5.4.2 Electrodes and Catalysts 178
5.4.3 Bipolar Plates and Current Collectors 179
5.4.4 Fuel and Oxidant Supply Systems 179
5.5 Fuel Cell Durability and Lifetime 180
5.5.1 Factors Affecting Fuel Cell Lifespan 180
5.5.2 Strategies for Improving Durability 182
5.5.3 Long-term Performance and Cost Reduction 182
5.6 Applications of Hydrogen Fuel Cells 183
5.6.1 Fuel Cells in Transportation 184
5.6.2 Fuel Cells in Stationary Power Generation 184
5.6.3 Fuel Cells for Backup Power and Remote Applications 185
5.6.4 Fuel Cells in Portable Devices and Consumer Electronics 185
5.7 Recent Advances and Research in Fuel Cell Technology 186
5.7.1 Next-generation Fuel Cell Designs 186
5.7.2 Innovations in Catalyst Materials 187
5.7.3 Fuel Cell Integration with Renewable Energy Systems 187
5.8 Environmental Impact and Sustainability of Hydrogen Fuel Cells 188
5.8.1 Lifecycle Emissions and Sustainability Considerations 188
5.8.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cells and Circular Economy 189
5.8.3 Environmental Benefits Compared to Other Technologies 190
5.9 Challenges and Future Prospects 190
5.10 Conclusion 193
References 193
6 Hydrogen-powered Transportation and Industrial Applications 203
6.1 Introduction 203
6.2 Hydrogen in Transportation Sector 205
6.2.1 Hydrogen FCEVs 206
6.2.2 Hydrogen for Heavy-duty Transport 208
6.3 Hydrogen Refueling Infrastructure: Current Progress and Challenges 210
6.4 Hydrogen in Industrial Applications 213
6.4.1 Hydrogen in Steel and Iron Industry 214
6.4.2 Hydrogen in Refining and Chemical Industries 216
6.4.3 Hydrogen in Cement Industry 218
6.5 Key Technological and Economic Drivers for Hydrogen in Transportation and Industry 220
6.6 Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Hydrogen in Transportation and Industry 222
6.7 Case Studies: Global Adoption of Hydrogen in Transportation and Industry 225
6.7.1 Japan’s Hydrogen-powered Transport Systems 225
6.7.2 Germany’s Hydrogen in Industrial Applications 226
6.7.3 United States: Advancements in Hydrogen for Heavy-duty Transport 226
6.7.4 Australia’s Hydrogen Industry and Export Potential 227
6.8 The Future Outlook for Hydrogen in Transportation and Industry 228
6.9 Conclusion 230
References 231
7 Economics, Infrastructure, and Policy of Hydrogen Energy 237
7.1 Introduction 237
7.2 Economic Analysis of Hydrogen Production 238
7.2.1 Cost Breakdown Across Hydrogen Production Methods 239
7.2.2 Market Competitiveness and Price Parity with Fossil Fuels 241
7.2.3 Economies of Scale: Cost Reductions Through Technological Advancements 243
7.2.4 Hydrogen as a Commodity: Global Trade and Export Potential 244
7.3 Infrastructure Development and Logistics 246
7.3.1 Hydrogen Production Hubs: Centralized vs. Decentralized Approaches 247
7.3.2 Transportation and Distribution Networks 247
7.3.3 Hydrogen Storage Technologies 249
7.3.3.1 Physical Storage: Cryogenic and High-pressure Tanks 250
7.3.3.2 Chemical Storage: Ammonia and LOHCs 250
7.3.3.3 Solid-state Storage: Metal Hydrides, MOFs, and Advanced Nanomaterials 251
7.3.4 Hydrogen Refueling Infrastructure 252
7.3.4.1 Deployment of HRS 252
7.3.4.2 Integration with Existing Fuel Networks and Smart Grid Systems 252
7.4 Policy and Regulatory Frameworks 253
7.4.1 Global Hydrogen Strategies: Leading Countries and Their Roadmaps 254
7.4.2 Policy Incentives for Hydrogen Development 256
7.4.3 Regulatory Standards and Safety Guidelines 258
7.4.3.1 Hydrogen Purity and Quality Standards 260
7.4.3.2 Safety Regulations for Production, Transport, and Storage 260
7.4.3.3 Environmental Impact Assessments and Certification 261
7.5 Investment and Financing Strategies 261
7.5.1 Current Investment Landscape in Hydrogen Technologies 262
7.5.2 Financing Models for Large-scale Hydrogen Deployment 263
7.5.2.1 Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) in Hydrogen Infrastructure 263
7.5.2.2 Green Bonds and Sustainable Finance Mechanisms 264
7.5.2.3 Venture Capital and Private Equity in Hydrogen Startups 265
7.5.3 Risks and Uncertainties in Hydrogen Investment 266
7.6 Emerging Hydrogen Economies: Growth in India, Australia, and South Korea 268
7.6.1 India: National Hydrogen Mission and Domestic Market Expansion 268
7.6.1.1 Industrial Applications and Hydrogen Adoption 269
7.6.1.2 Policy Framework and Government Initiatives 269
7.6.2 Australia: Export-oriented Hydrogen Strategy and Global Partnerships 269
7.6.2.1 Export Markets and Global Hydrogen Trade 270
7.6.2.2 Government Support and Investment 270
7.6.3 South Korea: Hydrogen Economy Roadmap and Fuel Cell Leadership 270
7.6.3.1 Hydrogen-based Power Generation 270
7.6.3.2 Government Policies and Investments 270
7.7 Challenges and Barriers to Hydrogen Commercialization 271
7.8 Case Studies: Leading Hydrogen Initiatives 273
7.8.1 Japan’s Hydrogen Society: From Strategy to Implementation 273
7.8.2 Germany’s National Hydrogen Strategy: Lessons from Europe’s Energy Transition 274
7.8.3 California’s Hydrogen Roadmap: Decarbonizing Transportation and Industry 275
7.8.4 Australia’s Green Hydrogen Export Plan: A Model for Global Trade 275
7.9 The Future of Hydrogen Economics and Policy 276
7.9.1 Global Hydrogen Market Projections (2030–2050) 277
7.9.2 Advancements in Low-cost Production and Storage Technologies 277
7.9.3 The Role of Digitalization, AI, and Blockchain in Hydrogen Trading 278
7.9.4 The Pathway to a Hydrogen-based Circular Economy 278
7.10 Conclusion 279
References 280
8 The Future of Hydrogen – Challenges, Innovations, and Sustainability 287
8.1 Introduction 287
8.1.1 Key Challenges Hindering Large-scale Adoption of Hydrogen 288
8.1.1.1 High Production Costs and Energy Inefficiency 288
8.1.1.2 Storage and Transportation Challenges 288
8.1.1.3 Infrastructure Limitations 289
8.1.1.4 Scalability of Hydrogen Technologies 289
8.1.1.5 Policy and Market Uncertainties 289
8.2 AI and Data-driven Optimization in Hydrogen Research 290
8.2.1 AI for Hydrogen Production and Storage 290
8.2.2 Digital Twins and Computational Simulations 292
8.3 Next-gen Hydrogen Technologies 294
8.3.1 Quantum Materials for Hydrogen Applications 294
8.3.2 Bio-inspired Catalysts and Hydrogen Production 296
8.4 Hydrogen’s Role in Achieving Net-zero Carbon Emissions 298
8.4.1 Hydrogen in Decarbonizing Heavy Industries 298
8.4.2 Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier for Carbon-neutral Grids 300
8.5 Hydrogen-powered Smart Cities and Off-grid Applications 301
8.6 Conclusion and Future Outlook 302
References 303
9 Hydrogen Safety, Regulations, and Standardization 309
9.1 Introduction to Hydrogen Safety and Standardization 309
9.2 Hydrogen Safety Protocols in Production, Storage, and Transportation 311
9.2.1 Safety Considerations in Hydrogen Production 311
9.2.2 Safety Protocols for Hydrogen Storage 314
9.2.3 Risk Mitigation in Hydrogen Transportation and Distribution 315
9.3 Regulatory Landscape: International Hydrogen Safety Standards and Policies 317
9.3.1 Global Hydrogen Safety Standards 317
9.3.2 International Hydrogen Safety Organizations 317
9.3.3 Hydrogen Safety Codes for Infrastructure Development and Risk Assessment 318
9.3.4 Country-specific Hydrogen Safety Regulations 319
9.4 Challenges in Standardization for Hydrogen Infrastructure 320
9.4.1 Interoperability of Hydrogen Refueling Stations and Pipelines 320
9.4.2 Certification of Hydrogen Storage and Transport Technologies 321
9.5 Hydrogen’s Role in Public Safety and Environmental Impact Assessment 323
9.5.1 Public Awareness and Safety Training for Hydrogen Adoption 324
9.5.2 Environmental Risks and Benefits of Hydrogen as a Clean Energy Source 324
9.6 Summary and Future Directions 325
References 327
10 Industrial Scale-up and Commercialization of Hydrogen Technologies 333
10.1 Introduction to Industrial Hydrogen Scale Up 333
10.2 Challenges in Large-scale Hydrogen Production 335
10.2.1 Economic and Technical Barriers 335
10.2.2 Infrastructure Limitations and Energy Requirements 336
10.3 Market Trends and Business Models for Hydrogen Commercialization 338
10.3.1 Investment Strategies and Funding Models 338
10.3.2 Supply Chain and Logistics Challenges 340
10.4 Case Studies of Successful Industrial Hydrogen Projects 341
10.4.1 Hydrogen in Steel and Cement Industries 341
10.4.2 Hydrogen in Ammonia and Power Generation 342
10.5 Future Roadmap for Hydrogen Adoption 344
References 345
Index 351
