Description
Emerging Materials for Photodegradation and Environmental Remediation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics provides an in-depth understanding of the materials, design choices and applications needed for the mitigation of micro- and nano-plastic pollutants from environmental wastewater. This is a topic that continually attracts attention worldwide.
This is an important book for academic institutes and libraries, scientific organizations, and global research industries, and has been created for a wide audience. The book provides the scope of material design, synthesis, detailed mechanisms, spectroscopic analysis, and problem-solving strategies in environmental remediation.
The scope of the book on reactive, functional materials and applications extends far beyond the emerging technologies that possess valuable insights of the synthesis, processing and physiochemical characteristics and their functional properties for academics, postgraduates, research scholars, scientists, technologists, environmental chemists and industrialists. This book presents fifteen chapters, which explore new ideas in processing, designing, synthesis, selection, application, photocatalytic efficiency and economic justifications of emerging materials.
Table of Contents
Foreword xv
Youngil LEE
Preface xvii
Laxman SINGH and Sunil KUMAR
Acknowledgments xxi
Laxman SINGH and Sunil KUMAR
Chapter 1 Micro- and Nano-Plastic Pollution: Present Status on Environmental Issues and
Photocatalytic Degradation 1
Monika VERMA, Yashaswini and Sujata KUNDAN
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 MPs and NPs: Sources, impact and health hazards 4
1.2.1 Micro-plastics 4
1.3 Nano-plastics 6
1.3.1 Sources and environmental risks 6
1.4 Impact of Covid-19 on plastic pollution 7
1.5 Methods for plastic degradation 8
1.5.1 Current methods for plastic degradation 8
1.5.2 Emerging solutions for plastic degradation 8
1.6 Conclusion 12
1.7 Future directions for plastic pollution control 12
1.8 References 12
Chapter 2 Metal Oxide-based Smart Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano
Plastics 19
Roopam GAUR and Satyendra SINGH
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Metal oxide photocatalysts and their characteristics 21
2.2.1 TiO2 24
2.2.2 ZnO 27
2.2.3 CuO 29
2.2.4 NiO 30
2.3 Conclusion and future prospectives 30
2.4 Acknowledgments 31
2.5 References 31
Chapter 3 WO 3-based Smart Material for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic 37
Rachana SAIN and Sudarshan SARKAR
3.1 Overview of micro- and nano-plastics 37
3.2 Photocatalytic degradation mechanism 42
3.3 Tungsten trioxide (WO3) 47
3.3.1 (WO3)-based smart materials 48
3.3.2 Synthesis of WO3 -based smart material 49
3.3.3 A few WO3 -based smart materials 51
3.4 Applications and future scope 52
3.5 References 54
Chapter 4 The Chemistry of Carbon Nanotubes in Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano
Plastic 61
Manish KUMAR and Sunil KUMAR
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 Micro- and nano-plastic 63
4.3 Carbon nanotube materials 65
4.4 Coating of carbon nanotube as photocatalytic degradation materials 66
4.4.1 TiO2 coating 66
4.4.2 ZnO coating 68
4.5 Functionalized carbon nanotube as photocatalytic degradation materials 69
4.5.1 Single wall carbon nanotube 70
4.5.2 Multiwall carbon nanotube 71
4.5.3 Noncovalent endohedral and exohedral functionalization with surfactants 73
4.5.4 Graphene-functionalized carbon nanotube 74
4.6 Hetero atom doping of carbon nanotube as photocatalytic degradation material 75
4.7 Conclusion 76
4.8 References 76
Chapter 5 Environmental Justifications of MXene towards Photocatalytic Capture and Conversion of Micro- and Nano-Plastic 81
Sweta SINGH and Abhijeet KUMAR
5.1 Introduction 82
5.2 Nanomaterial catalyzed methods for the degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 86
5.3 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 87
5.4 MXene: a nanomaterial with diverse applications 91
5.5 Important properties of MXenes 93
5.6 Application of MXene as photocatalyst 95
5.7 Application of MXene-based materials for the degradation of organic pollutants 95
5.8 MXene as photocatalyst for degradation of MPs and NPs 96
5.9 Conclusion 97
5.10 References 97
Chapter 6 Metal–Organic Framework based on Functional Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic 105
Vinita, Madhu TIWARI, Pravesh Kumar YADAV, Arun Pratap VERMA, Chandrakala SINGH and Sudhakar PANDEY
6.1 Introduction 105
6.2 Historical background and discovery of metal–organic frameworks 106
6.3 Bonding in metal–organic frameworks 107
6.4 Dimensionality of metal–organic frameworks 108
6.5 Methods for the synthesis of metal–organic frameworks 109
6.5.1 Ultrasonic synthesis 111
6.5.2 Electrochemical synthesis 111
6.5.3 Mechanochemical synthesis 111
6.5.4 Microwave synthesis 112
6.6 Properties of metal–organic frameworks 112
6.7 Micro- and nano-plastics 113
6.7.1 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 114
6.7.2 Mechanism of photocatalytic degradation 115
6.7.3 Changes in micro-/nano-plastics morphology in photocatalytic degradation 117
6.8 Factors influencing photocatalytic degradation efficiency 117
6.9 Role of micromotors in photocatalytic degradation of MPs/NPs 118
6.10 Photocatalytic water purification: removal of micro- and nano-plastics from water 119
6.10.1 Photocatalytic degradation of polyethylene terephthalate nano-plastics 121
6.10.2 Photodisintegration of emerging pollutants 123
6.11 References 125
Chapter 7 Carbon-based Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-plastics 133
Chandrakala SINGH and Devjani ADHIKARI
7.1 Introduction 133
7.2 Classification of carbon-based nanomaterials 135
7.2.1 Carbon nanotubes 135
7.2.2 Single-walled carbon nanotubes 136
7.2.3 Double-walled carbon nanotubes 137
7.2.4 Multi-walled carbon nanotubes 137
7.2.5 Fullerene 138
7.2.6 Nanodiamonds 138
7.2.7 Carbon dots 139
7.2.8 Graphene 139
7.2.9 Graphene nanoribbons 140
7.2.10 Graphene quantum dots 140
7.3 An overview of photocatalysts’ breakdown of MPs and NPs 145
7.4 Carbonaceous nanomaterials 147
7.4.1 Graphene, RGO (reduced graphene oxide) and GO 147
7.4.2 Carbon nanotubes 147
7.4.3 Nano-graphite 148
7.4 Conclusion 149
7.5 References 149
Chapter 8 Graphene-based Materials for Photodegradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 159
Geeta SINGH and Preeti GUPTA
8.1 Introduction 160
8.1.1 Overview of micro-plastics 160
8.1.2 Overview of nano-plastics 161
8.1.3 Environmental impact of micro- and nano-plastics 162
8.1.4 Better alternatives to plastics 163
8.1.5 Status of plastic recycling in India with other countries 164
8.2 Graphene-based materials 165
8.3 Structure and characteristics of graphene-based materials 166
8.4 Photodegradation and graphene-based materials 170
8.5 Application of GMBs in removal/degradation/remediation of different pollutants 171
8.6 Photodegradation of micro- and nano-plastics by graphene-based materials 172
8.7 Challenges and future perspectives 173
8.8 Environmental fate of graphene-based materials 173
8.9 Conclusion 174
8.10 References 175
Chapter 9 2D Nanomaterials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 183
Thakur Prasad YADAV and Kalpana AWASTHI
9.1 Introduction 184
9.2 2D materials 185
9.2.1 Graphene family 185
9.2.2 Transition metal dichalcogenides and MXenes 187
9.2.3 Phosphorene 188
9.2.4 Oxides and hydroxide materials 189
9.3 Synthesis of 2D materials 189
9.4 Properties and applications of 2D materials 191
9.5 Application of 2D materials in photocatalytic degradation 192
9.6 Micro- and nano-plastics 194
9.7 Micro- and nano-plastics identification 196
9.7.1 Microscopy: stereo microscopy and dissecting microscopy 196
9.7.2 Fluorescence microscopy 196
9.7.3 Transmission electron microscopy 197
9.7.4 Scanning electron microscopy 198
9.7.5 Atomic force microscopy 199
9.7.6 FTIR spectroscopy 200
9.7.7 Raman spectroscopy 201
9.7.8 Thermal analysis 201
9.7.9 New approaches and new identification strategies 203
9.7.10 Impact of micro- and nano-plastics on human health 203
9.8 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastic 204
9.9 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastic through 2D materials 204
9.10 Summary and conclusion 206
9.11 Acknowledgments 206
9.12 References 206
Chapter 10 Hybrid 2D-Smart Materials in Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 215
Niranjan PATRA, Gudiguntla RAVI, Muddada Jaya SURYA and Akil AHMAD
10.1 Introduction 215
10.2 2D materials: properties and functionalities 217
10.2.1 Electronic properties 217
10.2.2 Optical properties 218
10.2.3 Mechanical properties 218
10.2.4 Thermal properties 219
10.2.5 Chemical properties and functionalization 219
10.2.6 Synergistic effects in hybrid 2D materials 220
10.3 Hybrid 2D-smart materials: design and synthesis 220
10.3.1 Synthesis techniques 221
10.3.2 Examples of hybrid 2D-smart materials 222
10.4 Mechanisms of photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 222
10.4.1 Initiation of degradation 223
10.4.2 Role of photocatalyst morphology and composition 224
10.4.3 Pathways of degradation 224
10.4.4 Environmental factors and degradation efficiency 225
10.5 Degradation of micro-plastics in marine environments 225
10.5.1 Photocatalytic degradation of nano-plastics in wastewater treatment 228
10.5.2 Integration of photocatalytic coatings in water purification systems 229
10.5.3 Photocatalytic degradation of micro-plastics in agricultural soils 229
10.6 Challenges, limitations and future scopes 230
10.7 Conclusions 232
10.8 References 232
Chapter 11 Design and Structural Modification of Advanced Biomaterials for Photocatalytic
Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 241
Nisha MANDLOI, Poonam SHARMA, Aakanksha MEWAL and Ajit Kumar VARMA
11.1 Introduction 242
11.1.1 Plastic pollution: a global challenge 242
11.1.2 Photocatalytic degradation: a green approach 244
11.2 Smart biomaterials: overview and selection criteria 249
11.2.1 Definition and characteristics of smart biomaterials 249
11.2.2 Selection criteria for smart biomaterials 253
11.3 Design principles for enhanced photocatalysis 254
11.3.1 Tailoring optical properties 255
11.3.2 Surface functionalization for targeted activity 258
11.4 Structural modifications for improved efficiency 261
11.4.1 Nanocomposite formation 262
11.4.2 Porosity enhancement 263
11.5 Case studies and applications 265
11.5.1 Titanium dioxide nanomaterials 265
11.5.2 Graphene-based smart biomaterials 267
11.6 Challenges and future perspectives 271
11.6.1 Overcoming biocompatibility concerns 272
11.6.2 Scalability and cost-effectiveness 273
11.6.3 Integration with other remediation techniques 274
11.7 Conclusion 276
11.8 References 276
Chapter 12 Nanocomposites: Sustainable Resources for Photodegradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics
281
Nisha SHANKHWAR, Pinki SINGH, Jewel THOMAS and Satyendra SINGH
12.1 Introduction 282
12.1.1 Addressing environmental challenges with nanocomposites 282
12.2 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 283
12.3 Nanocomposites in environmental remediation 284
12.3.1 Understanding nanocomposites 284
12.3.2 Enhanced mechanical, thermal, electrical and optical properties 285
12.3.3 Nanocomposite composition and structure 285
12.4 Synthesis of nanocomposites 286
12.4.1 Synthesis techniques 287
12.4.2 Optimization of synthesis parameters 287
12.5 Photodegradation mechanisms 288
12.5.1 Mechanism of photocatalytic reaction 289
12.5.2 Energy absorption and electron–hole pair generation 289
12.5.3 Charge aggregation and surface migration 289
12.5.4 Redox reactions at the interface 289
12.5.5 Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in an oxygen-rich atmosphere 289
12.5.6 Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in an inert atmosphere 290
12.6 Nanocomposites for micro- and nano-plastic degradation 290
12.6.1 Titanium dioxide and modified composites 291
12.6.2 Zinc oxide and modified composites 292
12.6.3 Zirconium dioxide and modified composites 293
12.6.4 Tungsten trioxide and modified composites 293
12.6.5 Carbon nitride-based composites 293
12.6.6 Perovskite-like materials 293
12.7 Photodegradation efficiency 293
12.7.1 Light absorption 294
12.7.2 Electron–hole pair generation 295
12.7.3 Reactive oxygen species formation 295
12.7.4 Interaction with micro- and nano-plastics 295
12.7.5 Mineralization 295
12.8 Applications and case studies 295
12.8.1. Nanocomposites for micro- and nano-plastic pollution control 296
12.8.2 Application in photodegradation 296
12.9 Challenges and considerations/future directions 297
12.9.1 Future vistas and emerging trends 297
12.9.2 The power of cross-disciplinary collaboration 297
12.10 Conclusion 298
12.11 Acknowledgments 298
12.12 References 298
Chapter 13 Fabrication of Plant/Biogenic-based Metallic Nanomaterials for Degradation of Micro- and
Nano-Plastics 301
Preeti GUPTA and Geeta SINGH
13.1 Introduction 301
13.2 Environment and micro- and nano-plastics 304
13.3 Role of nanomaterials in micro- and nano-plastics 306
13.4 Plant/biogenic metallic nanomaterials 307
13.4.1 Characterization technique involved in nanomaterials 309
13.4.2 Properties of nanomaterials 309
13.5 Degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 310
13.6 Conclusion and future prospectives 312
13.7 References 313
Chapter 14 Efficiency of Hybrid Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics
319
Vaishali GUPTA and Satyendra SINGH
14.1 Introduction 320
14.2 Behavior of micro- and nano-plastics 323
14.3 Objective of the chapter 324
14.4 Global plastic production 324
14.5 Photocatalytic degradation 325
14.6 Hybrid smart materials for degradation of microand nano-plastics 327
14.7 Conclusions and suggestions for the future 335
14.8 References 335
Chapter 15 Surface Modifications of BiVO 4 Semiconductor Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic 341
Nikita YADAV, Vaishali GUPTA and Ojasvi SAINI
15.1 Introduction to micro- and nano-plastic pollution 342
15.1.1 Overview of micro- and nano-plastic pollution: a growing environmental concern 342
15.1.2 Definition and classification 343
15.1.3 Occurrence and distribution of micro- and nano-plastic in environmental matrices 348
15.2 Semiconductor photocatalysis in environmental remediation: fundamentals and principles 349
15.2.1 Mechanisms of photocatalytic degradation 350
15.2.2 Factors influencing photocatalytic efficiency 352
15.2.3 Role of semiconductors in environmental clean-up 353
15.3 Role of BiVO 4 in photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 354
15.3.1 Introduction to BiVO 4 semiconductors 354
15.3.2 Significance of BiVO 4 in photocatalysis 355
15.3.3 Advantages and limitations of BiVO 4 for this application 356
15.4 Surface modifications of BiVO₄ for enhanced catalytic activity 358
15.4.1 Overview of surface modification techniques 358
15.4.2 Chemical modifications: metal and nonmetal doping and co-catalyst deposition 359
15.4.3 Physical modifications 360
15.4.4 Hybrid and composite materials 361
15.4.5 Advances in surface modification technologies 362
15.5 Applications and challenges in real-world scenarios 364
15.5.1 Practical applications in micro- and nano-plastic degradation 364
15.6 Conclusion 366
15.7 References 367
List of Authors 371
Index 375
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