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In summary, considerable controversy and research have been generated from the automatic/effortful distinction. Hasher and Zacks (1979) initially stated that all manipulations (e. g. , practice, individual differences such as age, orienting instructions) must produce null effects in order to satisfy the criteria that a process is "automatic. " However, Zacks et al. (1984) have more recently noted that automatic processes may range in degree from relative insensitivity to task and subject variables (e. g. , frequency processing) to those that are more vulnera- ble to disruptive effects (e. g. , temporal processing). A review of the literature reveals that individuals are sensitive to frequency information even if manipUla- tions alter the slope of the judgments. Perhaps the application of dual-task metho- dology to the measurement of capacity demands will be useful in classifying processes along an attentional continuum. Moreover, there has been a tendency to dichotomize automatic/effortful processes rather than to characterize them as ranging from low to high attentional demands.
Recent evidence (Maki & Ostby, 1987) suggests that attention may be important only in the initial (early) stages of processing frequency information. Therefore, a major difference that may emerge between automatic and effortful processing could be the degree of sus- tained attention required from individuals. In the following section, we review the findings obtained in the application of the automatic/effortful framework to the elderly and neurological/psychiatric populations.
Contents
1 The Neuropsychology of Aging and Dementia: Clinical Issues.- Normal Aging.- The Dementias.- 2 Neuropsychological and Computed Tomographic Identification in Dementia.- Quantifying Cerebral Measurements.- Neuropsychological Findings in Dementia.- Neuropsychological-CT Scan Interrelationships.- Subgroup Analysis and Dementia: Neuropsychological, CT Scan, and Presenting Symptom Analysis.- Prediction of Deterioration.- Relationship of CT with Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Positron Emission Tomography Scanning Techniques.- Summary.- 3 Dementia of the Alzheimer Type: Challenges of Definition and Clinical Diagnosis.- History of Clinical Diagnosis of DAT.- DAT Diagnostic Criteria.- Pathophysiological Correlates of DAT Clinical Manifestations.- Differential Diagnosis of DAT.- DAT and the Neurological Basis of Thought.- 4 Discourse Performance in Subjects with Dementia of the Alzheimer Type.- Subjects.- Materials and Methods.- Methods for Data Analysis.- Results.- Discussion.- Appendix 4.A: Language Samples from DAT Patients.- 5 Neuropsychological Assessment and Treatment of Head Trauma Patients.- The Problem.- Organic Factors.- Estimating Severity and Predicting Outcome.- The Recovery Model.- Preinjury Factors.- Cognitive Dysfunction.- Emotional Factors.- Social and Vocational Factors.- Rehabilitation.- 6 Automatic Processing of Frequency Information in Survivors of Severe Closed Head Injury.- Automatic/Effortful Framework.- Frequency Processing in Neurologically Intact Populations.- Studies of Frequency Processing in the Aged and Psychiatric/Neurological Groups.- Automatic and Effortful Processing in Survivors of Severe Closed Head Injury.- Implications of Automatic Processing Deficits for Amnesia.- 7 Linguistic Competence and Level of Cognitive Functioning in Adults with Traumatic Closed Head Injury.- Method.- Results.- Discussion.- Appendix 7.A.- 8 A Paradigm Shift in Memory Rehabilitation.- Traditional Approaches to Memory Rehabilitation.- Toward an Ecological Approach to Memory Rehabilitation.- Results of a Survey of Forgetting Experiences.- A Three-Pronged Approach to Memory Rehabilitation.- Conclusions.- 9 Closed Head Trauma: Somatic, Ophthalmic, and Cognitive Impairments in Nonhospitalized Patients.- Method.- Results.- Conclusions.- Appendix 9.A.- 10 Activation of Semantic Relations in Alzheimer's and Huntington's Disease.- Lexicosemantic Processing in HD.- Lexical and Semantic Priming in DAT.- General Discussion and Conclusions.- Author Index.
