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Full Description
A fundamental problem in cell biology is the cause of aging. The solution to this problem has not yet been obtained because,(l) until recently, it was not possible to image living cells directly. The use of low-energy (soft) X rays has made such imaging possible, perhaps thereby allowing the aging process to be understood and possibly overcome (a result that may well generate further social, moral, and ethical problems). Fortun ately this is not the only aspect of cell biology amenable to soft X-ray imaging, and it is envisaged that many less controversial studies--such as investigations of the detailed differences between healthy and diseased or malignant cells (in their natural states) and processes of cell division and growth-will be made possible. The use of soft X rays is not limited to biological studies-many applications are possible in, for example, fusion research, materials science, and astronomy. Such studies have only recently begun in earnest because several difficulties had to be overcome, major among these being the lack (for some purposes) of sufficiently intense sources, and the technological difficulties associated with making efficient optical systems. As is well known, the advent of dedicated synchrotron radiation sources, in particular, has alleviated the first of these difficulties, not just for the soft X-ray region. It is the purpose of this book to consider progress in the second.
Contents
1. Properties of Soft X Rays.- 1.1. Introduction.- 1.2. Interaction of Soft X Rays with Matter.- 1.3. Sources of Soft X Rays.- 1.4. Detectors of Soft X Rays.- 1.5. General Features of Soft X-Ray Optics.- 2. Reflective Optics for Soft X Rays I. Grazing Incidence.- 2.1. Total External Reflection.- 2.2. Focusing with Spherical Mirrors at Grazing Incidence.- 2.3. Focusing at Grazing Incidence with Single Aspheric Reflectors.- 2.4. Compound Systems.- 2.5. Resolution of Grazing Incidence Systems.- 3. Manufacture of Grazing Incidence Reflective Optics.- 3.1. Manufacturing Tolerances.- 3.2. Manufacturing Techniques.- 3.3. Metrology of Grazing Incidence Optical Components.- 4. Reflective Optics for Soft X Rays II. Multilayer Mirrors.- 4.1. Reflection of Soft X Rays by Multilayer Mirrors.- 4.2. Focusing with Multilayer Mirrors.- 5. Manufacture of Multilayer Mirrors.- 5.1. Manufacturing Tolerances.- 5.2. Manufacturing Techniques.- 6. Diffractive Optics I. Diffraction Gratings.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. Plane Linear Gratings.- 6.3. Concave Spherical Gratings.- 6.4. Aspheric Gratings.- 7. The Design and Manufacture of X-Ray Diffraction Gratings.- 7.1. Manufacturing Tolerances and Types of Grating.- 7.2. Manufacturing Techniques.- 8. Diffractive Optics II. Zone Plates.- 8.1. Fresnel and Soret Amplitude Zone Plates.- 8.2. Improvement of Image Quality—Modified Amplitude Zone Plates.- 8.3. Other Types of Modified Amplitude Zone Plate.- 8.4. Gabor Zone Plates.- 8.5. Phase-Modulating Zone Plates.- 9. Manufacture of Zone Plates.- 9.1. Manufacturing Tolerances.- 9.2. Manufacturing Techniques.- 9.3. Stability of Zone Plates.- 10. Applications of Soft X-Ray Focusing Systems.- 10.1. Introduction.- 10.2. Synchrotron Radiation Beam Lines and Monochromators.- 10.3. Small-Angle X-RayScattering.- 10.4. X-Ray Microscopy.- 10.5. Imaging of Laser Fusion Plasmas.- 10.6. X-Ray Astronomy.- 10.7. X-Ray Spectroscopy.- 11. Future Developments.- 11.1. Introduction.- 11.2. Sources of Soft X Rays.- 11.3. New Developments in Soft X-Ray Optics.- 11.4. New Uses of Soft X Rays.- 11.5. Conclusions.- References.
