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Methods and solutions to protect the environment against PFAS, in line with new regulations by US and EU authorities
PFAS in the Environment comprehensively summarizes the chemical and ecotoxicological properties of different types of per- and polyfluorinated alkanes (PFAS) as well as current and emerging detection methods, known and suspected health risks, and removal technologies from water and soil. This book considers the recently enacted and much stricter regulations set by the US EPA and its European counterpart on the production and use of PFAS. A special focus is placed on how water treatment plants may be upgraded to reduce PFAS content in drinking water.
In PFAS in the Environment, readers will find information on:
Occurrence, distribution, fate/transport, and behavior of PFAS
Climate change threats posed by PFAS
Case studies detailing cutting-edge research and remediation of PFAS
Global regulations of PFAS
Strategies to phase out PFAS from industrial and consumer products and ultimately achieve a PFAS-free environment
PFAS in the Environment serves as an excellent up-to-date resource on the subject for environmental scientists and professionals as well as government agencies and researchers in environmental and human toxicology.
Contents
List of Contributors xvii
Editor Biographies xxi
Preface xxvii
1 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: Overview 1
Divyanshu Sikarwar, Ritu Kshatriya, Neha Sharma, Sovik Das, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Puspendu Bhunia, Bashir M. Al- Hashimi, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and C.M. Kao
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Classification of PFAS 2
1.3 Production and Application of PFAS 3
1.4 Occurrence, Distribution, and Behavior of the PFAS in the Environment 4
1.5 Impacts of PFAS on the Environment and Living Beings 6
1.6 Action to Research, Restrict, and Remediate PFAS 7
1.6.1 Policies and Regulatory Measures 7
1.6.2 Substitution Plan 8
1.6.3 Treatment and Remediation Technologies 9
1.6.4 Research Limitations of PFAS in the Environment 9
1.7 Book Structure and Outline of Each Chapter 10
References 11
2 Properties, Uses, Sources, and Environmental Releases of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 17
Anil Dhanda, Shraddha Yadav, and M. M. Ghangrekar
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Properties of PFAS 18
2.2.1 Physical Properties 18
2.2.2 Chemical Properties 19
2.2.3 Thermal Stability 19
2.3 Major Characteristics Affecting PFAS Fate and Transport in the Environment 20
2.4 Impacts of Peculiar Features of PFAS 20
2.5 History and Use of PFAS 21
2.5.1 Aerospace Sector 21
2.5.2 Biotechnology 22
2.5.3 Construction and Infrastructure 22
2.5.4 Chemical Processing 22
2.5.5 Metal Finishing and Treatment 22
2.5.6 Electronics Industry 22
2.5.7 Energy Technologies 22
2.5.8 Food and Beverage Processing 23
2.5.9 Mining Operations 23
2.5.10 Oil and Gas Industry 23
2.5.11 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing 23
2.5.12 Rubber and Plastics Processing 23
2.5.13 Semiconductor Manufacturing 23
2.5.14 Textile and Leather Industries 23
2.5.15 Medical and Diagnostic Devices 24
2.5.16 Metals and Ceramics 24
2.5.17 Musical Instruments 24
2.5.18 Optical Devices 24
2.5.19 Packaging and Paper 24
2.5.20 Cosmetics and Personal Care 24
2.5.21 Pesticides and Agriculture 24
2.5.22 Pharmaceutical Ingredients 24
2.5.23 Environmental Remediation 25
2.5.24 Sports and Recreation 25
2.5.25 Cabling and Wiring 25
2.6 Sources and Environmental Releases of PFAS 25
2.6.1 Major Sources for Environmental Releases of PFAS 25
2.6.1.1 Industrial Facilities 25
2.6.1.2 Consumer and Domestic Products 26
2.6.1.3 Landfills and Wastewater Treatment Plants 26
2.6.1.4 Legacy Contamination and Global Usage Patterns 26
2.6.1.5 Atmospheric Emissions and Long- Range Transport 26
2.6.2 Ranking Exposure Pathways from Various Sources 27
2.6.2.1 Drinking Water Contamination (High Risk) 27
2.6.2.2 Food Chain Contamination (High Risk) 27
2.6.2.3 Indoor Air and Dust (Moderate- to- High Risk) 27
2.6.2.4 Occupational Exposure (Moderate Risk) 28
2.6.2.5 Recreational Water Exposure (Moderate Risk) 28
2.6.2.6 Soil Ingestion and Contact (Low- to- Moderate Risk) 28
2.7 Future Perspective 28
2.8 Conclusion 28
References 29
3 Current and Emerging Detection/Monitoring Techniques for Perand Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Quantification in Environmental Samples 35
Jiun- Hau Ou, Hua- Bin Zhong, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al- Hashimi
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Sample Extraction Methods 35
3.3 Conventional Techniques for Detection of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 37
3.3.1 Liquid Chromatography 38
3.3.2 Gas Chromatography 39
3.3.3 Ion Chromatography 39
3.4 Emerging Techniques for Detection of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 40
3.4.1 Colorimetric 40
3.4.2 Electrochemical and Sensor Based 41
3.4.3 Fluorescence- Based 42
3.5 Indirect Quantification Techniques 43
3.5.1 Fluoride Ion Generation 43
3.5.2 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 44
3.5.3 Total Fluorine Organic Compounds 45
3.6 Regulatory Determinations of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Comparison of Different Techniques 46
3.6.1 Regulatory Determinations of PFAS 46
3.6.2 Techniques for Detecting PFAS in Different Media and Sensitivity Comparison 48
3.7 Monitoring Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Environment 49
3.7.1 Environmental Occurrence and Global Trends 49
3.7.2 Matrix- Specific Monitoring Challenges 51
3.7.3 Integration of Emerging Technologies 53
3.7.4 Data Gaps and Harmonization Needs 54
3.7.5 Future Outlook 56
3.8 Challenges with the Detection and Monitoring of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 56
3.8.1 Limitations of Detection Technologies 57
3.8.2 Inconsistent Monitoring Standards 58
3.8.3 Uncertainty in Environmental Migration and Transformation 60
3.8.4 Insufficient Databases and Monitoring Networks 61
3.9 Future Perspective 63
3.9.1 Are Current Analytical Chemistry Techniques Adequate? 63
3.9.2 What Improvements Are Needed to Improve Process and Precision 63
3.9.3 How to Better Characterize the Range of PFAS Potentially in the Environment? 64
3.10 Conclusion 65
References 65
4 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Different Matrices: Occurrence, Distribution, Fate/Transport, and Behavior 79
Hua- Bin Zhong, Jiun- Hau Ou, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al- Hashimi
4.1 Introduction 79
4.2 Fate/Transport and Transformation Processes 80
4.2.1 Partitioning 80
4.2.2 Transport 81
4.2.2.1 Advection/Dispersion/Diffusion 81
4.2.2.2 Deposition 82
4.2.2.3 Leaching 83
4.2.3 Surfactant Properties and Micelle Formation 84
4.2.4 Transformation of PFAS 85
4.2.4.1 Abiotic 85
4.2.4.2 Biotic 86
4.3 PFAS in Different Matrices of the Natural Environment 87
4.3.1 Aqueous Matrices 88
4.3.2 Solid Matrices 89
4.3.3 Air 89
4.3.4 Living Beings 90
4.3.5 Food Matrices 91
4.3.6 Other Media and Compartments 92
4.3.7 Complex Transitions of PFAS among Different Media 92
4.4 PFAS in the Built Environment for Pollution Control 93
4.4.1 Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants 93
4.4.2 Combined Stormwater and Sewer Overflows 94
4.4.3 Sewage Sludge, Biosolids, and Landfill Leachate 95
4.4.4 Solid Waste Management Systems 96
4.4.5 Remediation Sites 97
4.5 Future Perspective 98
4.6 Conclusion 99
References 100
5 PFAS in Drinking Water Sources: Global Presence, Impacts, Removal, and Regulation 105
Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 Presence of PFAS in Drinking Water Sources across the Globe 106
5.2.1 Europe 106
5.2.2 America 112
5.2.3 Asia 115
5.2.4 Africa 118
5.2.5 Australia 118
5.3 Human Exposure to PFAS through Drinking Water and Its Impacts 118
5.3.1 Immunotoxicity 119
5.3.2 Carcinogenicity 120
5.3.3 Endocrine Disruption and Kidney Disorders 121
5.3.4 Fetal Growth 122
5.3.5 Enhanced Cholesterol Levels 122
5.3.6 Hormonal Imbalance 122
5.3.7 Sexual Development 123
5.3.8 Liver Function Disorder 123
5.4 Removal of PFAS from Different Drinking Water Sources 124
5.4.1 Adsorption 124
5.4.2 Membrane Technology 126
5.4.3 Anion Exchange 127
5.5 Regulations Imposed by Different Countries for the Ramifications of PFAS 128
5.6 Future Perspectives 130
5.7 Conclusion 131
References 131
6 Occurrence, Transformation, and Removal of PFAS in Wastewater Treatment Plants 145
Srishti Mishra, Rishabh Raj, Brajesh K. Dubey, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar
6.1 Introduction 145
6.2 Occurrence of PFAS in Water Matrices 146
6.3 Distribution of PFAS in WWTPs Across the Globe 149
6.4 Removal of PFAS via Conventional Methods 150
6.5 Removal of PFAS from Biosolids 152
6.6 Emerging Techniques for PFAS Removal and Future Perspectives 153
6.7 Conclusion 154
References 155
7 A Cyclic Problem of Disposal of Products and Materials Containing Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 161
Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
7.1 Introduction 161
7.2 Potential Sources Contributing to PFAS in the Environment 163
7.3 Life Cycle of PFAS in the Environment 165
7.4 Three Major PFAS Disposal Methods: Consequences and Impact 169
7.4.1 PFAS in Leachate and Surrounding Areas of Landfill 169
7.4.2 PFAS in Effluent and Surrounding Areas of WWTPs 172
7.4.3 PFAS after Incineration 175
7.5 Risks to the Communities Dwelling Near Landfills and PFAS- Polluted Water Sources 178
7.6 Future Perspective 180
7.7 Conclusion 180
References 181
8 Ecological Toxicity of PFAS 187
Wei- Ting Chen, Chathura Dhanasinghe, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
8.1 Introduction 187
8.2 Linking PFAS Substances or Subclasses with PFAS Adverse Effects to Aquatic and Terrestrial Organisms 188
8.3 Exposure Potential for Different Classes of Organisms 190
8.3.1 Aquatic Organisms 190
8.3.2 Terrestrial Organisms 191
8.3.3 Human Exposure 192
8.4 Assessing the Ecological Effects of PFAS: Framework and Approaches 193
8.4.1 Traditional Toxicity Tests 194
8.4.2 QSAR Modeling Approaches 194
8.4.3 Read- across Methods 195
8.4.4 Microarray 195
8.4.5 Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) 196
8.5 Conclusion 196
References 197
9 Toxicity and Health Risks of PFAS 209
Chathura Dhanasinghe, Wei- Zhe Lin, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
9.1 Introduction 209
9.2 Classification of PFAS 211
9.2.1 Legacy 212
9.2.2 Emerging 213
9.3 Important Pathways of Environmental Exposures 213
9.3.1 The Primary Pathway 214
9.3.2 The Use of PFAS- contaminated Consumer Products 215
9.3.3 The Use of Pesticides in both Agriculture and Residential Applications 216
9.3.4 Other Pathways 217
9.4 PFAS Toxicity in Humans 217
9.4.1 Exposure Sources and Routes of PFAS in Humans 218
9.4.2 Accumulation of PFAS in Humans 219
9.4.3 Identification of PFAS in Human 220
9.4.4 Health Impacts of PFAS on Living Beings 222
9.5 PFAS Toxicity in Experimental Models 224
9.5.1 Hepatic and Lipid Metabolic Toxicity 225
9.5.2 Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity 226
9.5.3 Immune Suppression 227
9.5.4 Tumor Induction 228
9.5.5 Endocrine Disruption 229
9.5.6 Neurotoxicity 231
9.5.7 Obesity 232
9.6 PFAS Toxicokinetics and Dynamic Processes in Humans 232
9.6.1 Species and Sex Differences 232
9.6.2 Effects of Comorbidity on PFAS Toxicokinetics 233
9.6.3 Toxicokinetics and Dynamic Processes in Humans 234
9.6.4 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic/Toxicokinetic (PBPK/PBTK) Modeling in Different- Aged Populations 235
9.7 PFAS Risk Communication 236
9.7.1 Role of Risk Perception 236
9.7.2 Risk Communication Planning and Engagement Tools 237
9.8 Future Perspective 239
9.9 Conclusion 240
References 241
10 PFAS Associated with Microplastics (MPs): A New Concern of a Forever Alliance 265
Almeenu Rasheed, Nehaun Zargar, Neha Sharma, and Sovik Das
10.1 Introduction 265
10.2 Fate of MPs and PFAS in the Aquatic Environment 266
10.3 MPs as PFAS Carriers in the Aquatic Environment 267
10.4 The Interaction of MPs and PFAS through Different Mechanisms 268
10.5 Factors Influencing the Interaction of MPs and PFAS 269
10.6 Harmful Impact of Combined Exposure of MPs and PFAS Present in Aquatic Environment and Living Organisms 270
10.7 Future Perspective 271
10.8 Conclusion 271
References 272
11 Climate Change Threats Imposed by PFAS 275
Chathura Dhanasinghe, Wei- Ting Chen, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
11.1 Introduction 275
11.2 Role of PFAS in Disrupting Ocean Carbon Sequestration 279
11.3 The Harmful Effect of Oceanic PFAS Pollution on Zooplankton 283
11.3.1 Bioaccumulation 284
11.3.2 Impact on Growth 285
11.3.3 Impact on Reproduction 285
11.3.4 ROS Production and Oxidative Stress 286
11.3.5 PFAS and Hormonal Disruption 286
11.4 The Detrimental Effect of Oceanic PFAS Pollution on the Marine Biological Pump and Microbial Pump 287
11.4.1 Marine Biological Pump 287
11.4.2 The Detrimental Effect of Oceanic PFAS Pollution on the Marine Biological Pump 289
11.4.3 Marine Microbial Carbon Pump 290
11.4.4 The Detrimental Effect of Oceanic PFAS Pollution on the Marine Microbial Carbon Pump 292
11.5 Strategies of Management and Control 293
11.5.1 Policy and Governance Approaches 294
11.5.2 Technological and Engineering Solutions 297
11.6 Future Perspective 300
11.7 Conclusion 301
References 302
12 Conventional Technologies for Removal of PFAS from Water Matrices 315
Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
12.1 Introduction 315
12.2 Occurrence of PFAS in Water Matrices and Potential Impacts on the Environment and Living Beings 316
12.2.1 Occurrence of PFAS in Surface Water 316
12.2.2 Occurrence of PFAS in Groundwater 317
12.2.3 Occurrence of PFAS in Drinking Water 318
12.2.4 Effect of PFAS on Living Beings 319
12.3 Conventional Treatment Technologies for Removing PFAS from Water Matrices 320
12.3.1 Physical Technologies 320
12.3.2 Chemical Technologies 329
12.3.3 Biological Methods 334
12.4 Life Cycle Assessment and Techno- Economic Analysis of Conventional Technologies for PFAS Removal 336
12.4.1 Life Cycle Assessment 336
12.4.2 Techno- Economic Analysis 337
12.5 Future Perspectives 338
12.6 Conclusion 339
References 339
13 Advanced/Emerging Technologies for Removal of PFAS from Water Matrices 349
Koran Barman, Yasser Bashir, Neha Sharma, Nehaun Zargar, Ritu Kshatriya, and Sovik Das
13.1 Introduction 349
13.2 Emerging/Advanced Technologies for PFAS Removal 352
13.2.1 Photolysis or Photocatalytic Oxidation 352
13.2.2 Constructed Wetlands 356
13.2.3 Electrochemical 357
13.2.4 Bioelectrochemical 359
13.2.5 Plasma 360
13.2.6 Electron Beam 362
13.2.7 Sub and Super Water Oxidation 363
13.2.8 Sonochemical or Sonolysis 363
13.2.9 Foam Fractionation 364
13.3 Treatment Train for the Removal of PFAS and their Comparison 366
13.4 Life Cycle Assessment and Techno- economic Analysis of Advanced and Emerging Technologies for PFAS Removal 367
13.5 Future Perspective 368
13.6 Conclusion 368
References 369
14 Treatment Technologies for Removal of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from Soil and Biosolids 377
Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
14.1 Introduction 377
14.2 Fate of PFAS into Soil and Biosolids and Potential Impacts on the Environment and Living Beings 378
14.3 Treatment Technologies for PFAS Removal from Soil and Biosolids 382
14.3.1 Adsorption 387
14.3.2 Membrane 387
14.3.3 Stabilization 388
14.3.4 Incineration 389
14.3.5 Thermal Hydrolysis 389
14.3.6 Chemical Oxidation 390
14.3.7 Supercritical Water Oxidation 391
14.3.8 Plasma 392
14.3.9 Sonochemical 393
14.3.10 Ball Milling 394
14.3.11 Soil Washing 394
14.3.12 Soil Liquefractionation 395
14.3.13 Bioremediation and Phytoremediation 396
14.4 Future Perspective 397
14.5 Conclusion 398
References 398
15 Status of Regulation on the Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Across the Globe 405
Manikanta M. Doki, Lakshmi Pathi Thulluru, Akash Tripathi, Shamik Chowdhury, and M. M. Ghangrekar
15.1 Introduction 405
15.2 PFAS Regulation and Guidelines by Different Countries 406
15.2.1 United States Environmental Protection Agency 406
15.2.2 European Union Guidelines on PFAS 407
15.2.3 United Kingdom Regulations on PFAS 407
15.2.4 Canadian PFAS Regulation 408
15.2.5 National Environmental Management of PFAS in Australia 408
15.2.6 Strategies or Policies for the Regulation of PFAS Usage in India 409
15.2.7 PFAS Regulation in Japan 409
15.2.8 Regulation in Other Countries 410
15.2.8.1 Norway 410
15.2.8.2 Middle East 410
15.2.8.3 Thailand 410
15.2.8.4 Vietnam 410
15.3 Global Organizations in PFAS Regulation 411
15.3.1 UN Recommendation in the Stockholm Convention 411
15.3.2 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 412
15.3.3 United Nations Environment Programme 412
15.3.4 International Pollutants Elimination Network 413
15.4 Differences in Available Regulations, Advisories, and Guidelines 413
15.5 Factors Contributing to Different Regulation Limits of PFAS 413
15.6 Challenges in the Implementation of PFAS Regulations 414
15.7 Future Perspective 414
15.8 Conclusion 415
References 415
16 Replacement of Legacy Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: A Way Forward to Mitigate the Ill Impacts Associated with These Chemicals 421
Randeep Singh, Anindita Ganguly, Young- Ho Ahn, and Saikat Sinha Ray
16.1 Introduction 421
16.2 Phasing Out of Legacy PFAS 424
16.3 Physicochemical Properties of Legacy PFAS 425
16.4 Impacts of Legacy PFAS on the Environment 429
16.5 Substitution of Longer- Chain PFAS with Shorter- and Ultra- Shorter- Chain Pfas 437
16.6 Conclusions 440
References 440
17 Transition Toward the Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance-Free Environment: Is it Possible? 447
Chinmoy Kanti Deb, Randeep Singh, Young- Ho Ahn, and Saikat Sinha Ray
17.1 Introduction 447
17.2 Stakeholders and Communities' Concerns 449
17.2.1 Understanding Stakeholder Perspectives and Varying Levels of Awareness and Priorities Regarding PFAS Contamination 449
17.2.2 Health and Environmental Impacts of PFAS 450
17.2.3 Social and Economic Challenges Associated with PFAS 451
17.2.4 Role of Public Awareness and Advocacy 452
17.3 Transition to a PFAS Free Economy and the Role of the Universal PFAS Restriction 452
17.3.1 The Current Reliance on PFAS in Industries 452
17.3.2 Challenges in Replacing PFAS with Essential Applications 453
17.3.3 Development of PFAS- free Alternatives 454
17.3.4 Global Efforts and Universal Restrictions on PFAS 454
17.3.4.1 Universal Restrictions on PFAS by the European Union 456
17.3.4.2 North American Regulations 457
17.3.4.3 PFAS Regulations in Asia, the Pacific Region, and Other Countries 457
17.3.4.4 International Treaties for PFAS Monitoring and Regulation 457
17.3.4.5 Progress in Global Efforts and International Treaties for PFAS Regulation 458
17.3.5 Policy Roadmap and Implementation Strategies for Enforcing Universal PFAS Restriction 459
17.3.5.1 Role of Governments and Global Multinational Organizations 459
17.3.5.2 Role of Research and Development Community 459
17.3.5.3 Role of Product Manufacturers 459
17.3.5.4 Role of Product Consumers 460
17.3.6 Economic and Social Implications of Transition from PFAS 460
17.3.7 How can Lifestyle Changes Reduce the Dependence on PFAS and its Burdens? 461
17.4 Challenges Linked with Transition Toward a PFAS- Free Environment 461
17.4.1 Detection and Monitoring 461
17.4.2 Cost and Uncertainty of Green Elimination of "Forever Chemicals" 462
17.4.3 Awareness, Education, and Community Involvement 462
17.5 Future Perspectives 463
17.6 Conclusion 464
References 464
18 Research, Regulation, and Remediation of the Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: Case Studies 475
Azhan Ahmad and Swatantra P. Singh
18.1 Introduction 475
18.2 Key Actions by USEPA to Address PFAS 476
18.2.1 The PFAS Strategic Roadmap 476
18.2.2 Setting Drinking Water Standards 477
18.2.3 Requiring Industry Accountability 478
18.2.4 Classifying PFAS as Hazardous Substances 478
18.2.5 Regulating PFAS Discharges into Waterways 478
18.2.6 Expanding Monitoring and Research 479
18.2.7 Focusing on Environmental Justice 479
18.3 PFAS and Its Hidden Impact on Agriculture 480
18.4 PFAS in Drinking Water— Minnesota Case Study 481
18.5 Prenatal Exposure to PFAS and Birth Outcomes: A Grave Concern 483
18.6 The True Cost of PFAS and Benefits of Acting Now 483
18.7 Future Perspective 485
18.8 Conclusion 486
References 486
Index 491
