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Comprehensive guide to the many forms of underground space use and explaining the interdisciplinary skills required for effective planning and design
Underground Space: Use, Planning, and Design comprehensively describes different aspects of underground space use and emphasizes the planning and design aspects for effective underground space utilization rather than the geomechanical and construction aspects of creating these spaces. The book provides the important issues and ideas in each aspect of the subject and guides readers to the appropriate literature for further research.
Written by a team of highly qualified authors, Underground Space includes information on:
Essentials of Soil Mechanics readers will also find:
Why underground space is used and when to choose to build underground
Psychological, sustainability, and resilience issues
Importance of utility infrastructure uses and their management
Recent advances made in urban underground space planning
Interior design, layout, lighting, and safety
Exterior and entrance design patterns
Underground Space: Use, Planning, and Design is an essential, up-to-date reference on the subject for architects, planners, and engineers in public agencies, private sectors, and research institutions. It is also valuable for use in courses on architectural design, urban planning, underground infrastructure, and infrastructure provision.
Contents
Contents
CONTENTS 3
LIST OF FIGURES 17
LIST OF TABLES 24
PREFACE 25
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 27
1 INTRODUCTION TO UNDERGROUND SPACE USE 29
1.1 The meaning and connotation of "underground"? 29
1.2 What has changed since the first edition? 30
1.3 Why use underground space? 31
1.3.1 Key drivers for underground space use 32
1.3.1.1 Land Use Pressures 32
1.3.1.2 Topography and Barrier Crossings 35
1.3.1.3 Environment, Sustainability and Resiliency 36
1.3.1.4 Provision of infrastructure services and mobility 37
1.3.1.5 Harvesting mineral and energy resources 38
1.4 Can we use underground space more effectively? 39
1.4.1 Need for better planning of underground space 39
1.4.2 Valuing underground space 39
1.4.3 Ownership and administrative procedures 40
1.4.4 Initiation of underground developments 41
1.4.5 Organizational support and promotion 42
1.4.6 Technology advances 43
1.5 Underground space in culture and literature 43
1.6 The future of underground space development 44
1.6.1 Some visionary concepts 44
1.6.2 A future driven by needs and aspirations 47
1.6.3 A note of caution 48
1.7 Summary 48
1.8 Chapter 1 references 49
1.9 Bibliography of general books and information regarding underground space use and design 51
2 DECISION MAKING FOR UNDERGROUND SPACE 54
2.1 Introduction 54
2.2 Choosing to build underground 54
2.2.1 Identifying the possible alternatives 54
2.2.2 Potential benefits and drawbacks 55
2.2.3 Physical issues 57
2.2.3.1 Location 57
2.2.3.2 Isolation 57
2.2.3.3 Protection 60
2.2.3.4 Environment 64
2.2.3.5 Layout 65
2.2.4 Institutional issues 66
2.2.5 Life-cycle cost issues 66
2.2.5.1 Initial Cost/Land Cost Savings 66
2.2.5.2 Operating Cost/Maintenance 69
2.2.6 Societal issues 70
2.3 Common evaluation methodologies 73
2.3.1 Direct costs (initial and life cycle) 73
2.3.2 Indirect costs 74
2.3.3 Social costs 74
2.3.4 Indirect and social benefits 75
2.3.5 Triple bottom line analysis (TBL) 75
2.3.6 Life-cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) 75
2.3.7 Service Cost Replacement Method (SCRM) 75
2.3.8 Willingness to pay 76
2.3.9 Real estate studies 76
2.3.10 Analytic network or hierarchy process (ANP or AHP) 77
2.4 Tricky questions for cost-benefit studies 77
2.4.1 What to include as a benefit? 77
2.4.2 Who pays, who benefits? 78
2.4.3 How to align benefits with costs? 78
2.5 Some typical construction and use comparisons 78
2.5.1 Tunnels vs surface or elevated alignments 79
2.5.2 Cut-and-cover versus bored tunnels 80
2.5.3 Trenchless technologies 80
2.5.4 Carbon footprint reduction 81
2.5.5 Life-cycle choices 81
2.6 Chapter 2 references 82
3 SUSTAINABILITY AND RESILIENCE ISSUES 87
3.1 Sustainability and resilience issues 87
3.2 The role of underground space 90
3.3 Resilience and vulnerability of underground facilities 93
3.3.1 Introduction 93
3.3.2 Resilience for military and civil defence 94
3.3.3 Resilience against natural hazards 95
3.3.4 Societal impacts of resilience related to underground infrastructure 96
3.3.5 Risks posed by underground infrastructure and facilities 97
3.4 Life safety 98
3.4.1 Challenges in life safety design in large underground facilities 98
3.4.2 Smoke control and ventilation systems 100
3.4.3 Structural fire resistance in tunnels and caverns 100
3.4.4 Structural fire resistance for underground buildings 100
3.4.5 Blast-resistant design 101
3.5 Protection for defence facilities 101
3.5.1 Exterior openings 101
3.5.2 Rock cover 102
3.5.3 Ground shock protection and dynamic support design 103
3.5.4 EMP protection, sensors and antennas 103
3.5.5 Ventilation and humidity control 104
3.5.6 Emergency power supply 104
3.6 Challenges and strategies for sustainable underground space development 104
3.6.1 Managing the complexity of underground space development 104
3.6.2 Justifying the cost 105
3.6.3 Geological input to planning 106
3.6.4 Supportive legal frameworks and policies 106
3.6.5 Appropriate safety standards for construction and use 107
3.6.6 Coordination and integration 108
3.6.7 Managing public perceptions and stakeholders 108
3.6.8 Time and timing 108
3.6.9 Assessing designs against sustainability and resilience goals 109
3.6.10 Combining underground excavation with space creation 110
3.7 Chapter 3 references 111
4 UNDERGROUND SPACE CLASSIFICATIONS AND CONFIGURATIONS 114
4.1 Introduction 114
4.2 Classification by function 115
4.3 Classification by geometry and scale 116
4.3.1 Fenestration 117
4.3.2 Depth 118
4.3.3 Project size 119
4.3.4 Building type/geographical extent 119
4.4 Other classifications/groupings 120
4.4.1 Origin 120
4.4.2 Site features 120
4.4.3 Project features 120
4.5 Typical configurations of underground openings 120
4.5.1 Natural cavities 120
4.5.1.1 Small-scale voids 121
4.5.1.2 Caves and caverns 121
4.5.1.3 Karst systems 122
4.5.2 Surface mining configurations 122
4.5.3 Underground mining configurations 124
4.5.4 Configurations for specific uses 127
4.6 CONFIGURATIONS APPLIED TO URBAN DESIGN 131
4.7 Chapter 4 References 135
5 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CURRENT USE OF UNDERGROUND SPACE 136
5.1 INTRODUCTION 136
5.2 Underground Space Uses by Type 136
5.2.1 Residential Uses 136
5.2.2 Religious Uses 143
5.2.3 Recreation 145
5.2.3.1 Natural cave exploration and tourism 145
5.2.3.2 Sports facilities and community centers 146
5.2.3.3 Parks 148
5.2.4 Commercial and Institutional Uses 149
5.2.4.1 Integrated urban developments 149
5.2.4.2 Stations and intermodal facilities 151
5.2.4.3 Commercial and institutional buildings 152
5.2.4.4 Visitor/Interpretive centers and museums 152
5.2.4.5 Libraries 153
5.2.4.6 Office buildings 154
5.2.4.7 Educational institutions 155
5.2.4.8 Special use facilities 157
5.2.5 Industrial facilities 157
5.2.6 Military and defense facilities 158
5.2.7 Storage 159
5.2.7.1 Bulk storage of food 159
5.2.7.2 Oil and gas storage 161
5.2.7.3 Secure storage 162
5.2.8 Infrastructure uses 164
5.2.8.1 Introduction 164
5.2.8.2 Transportation 164
5.2.8.3 Transportation tunnels 165
5.2.8.4 Parking 167
5.2.8.5 Freight transport 167
5.2.8.6 Utility Systems 168
5.2.8.7 Water supply and sewage treatment 170
5.2.8.8 Waste disposal 171
5.2.8.9 Energy production and storage 172
5.2.8.10 Ground-coupled heat exchange systems 174
5.2.8.11 Integrated ground-coupled thermal systems 175
5.2.9 Mining and Resource Extraction 177
5.2.9.1 Mined space reuse 178
5.2.9.2 Agricultural uses 179
5.2.10 Miscellaneous uses 180
5.3 Discussion by geographical region 180
5.3.1 Introduction 180
5.3.2 Europe 181
5.3.2.1 Central Europe 181
5.3.2.2 Scandinavia and Iceland 181
5.3.2.3 UK and Ireland 182
5.3.2.4 Eastern Europe 182
5.3.3 Asia 183
5.3.3.1 East Asia (China, Hong Kong, Macao, Mongolia, Taiwan) 183
5.3.3.2 India 183
5.3.3.3 Japan and Korea 184
5.3.3.4 Singapore 184
5.3.3.5 Other 185
5.3.4 The Americas 185
5.3.4.1 North America 185
5.3.4.2 Central and South America 186
5.3.5 Oceania 187
5.3.6 Middle East and North Africa 188
5.3.7 Africa (except northernmost Africa) 188
5.4 Chapter 5 References 189
6 PLANNING ISSUES FOR UNDERGROUND SPACE 196
6.1 Introduction 196
6.2 Key aspects of undeground space planning 197
6.2.1 Piecemeal approaches and ad hoc solutions to urban problems 198
6.2.2 Recognizing the need for underground space planning 199
6.2.3 Integration into conventional planning activities 200
6.2.4 Optimizing the use of the subsurface 200
6.2.5 When to plan 201
6.2.6 Planning approaches may vary widely 202
6.2.7 Where to plan 203
6.2.8 Planning related to key drivers 205
6.2.8.1 Geographical - density, lack of surface space 205
6.2.8.2 Integrating aboveground and underground approaches 205
6.2.8.3 Geological - identifying resources and impacts 206
6.2.8.4 Topographical - creating better linkages 207
6.2.8.5 Weighing the balance - underground projects vs. the environment 207
6.2.8.6 Infrastructure systems - transportation, utility infrastructure, pedestrian, etc. 208
6.2.8.7 Balancing public and private interests 211
6.2.8.8 Current needs vs. future possibilities 212
6.3 The harmonious urban development of the surface and subsurface 213
6.4 Underground space development suitability and intensity 213
6.5 Legal issues and administrative controls 215
6.5.1 Land ownership and easements 215
6.5.2 Administrative controls and regulation 217
6.6 Other underground planning issues 218
6.7 Strategic and Master Planning 219
6.8 Chapter 6 references 220
7 URBAN UNDERGROUND SPACE PLANNING TOOLS AND CASE EXAMPLES 225
7.1 Evolution of Planning Efforts 225
7.2 Tools for integrated planning and development 229
7.3 Tools for three-dimensional spatial zoning of the underground 231
7.4 Tools for optimizing the multiple resource aspects of underground space 233
7.5 Criteria for delineating favorable and unfavorable underground zones 234
7.6 Vertical Control of Underground Space Development 237
7.7 Socio-economic factors in the development of underground space 238
7.7.1 Key influences 238
7.7.2 Influence of socio-economic factors on underground space configurations 240
7.8 Assessing the potential "value" of Underground Space Resources 241
7.8.1 Assessment of value based on need and potential future demand 241
7.8.2 Assessment of engineering difficulty for developing underground space by location and depth 243
7.8.3 Integrated quality assessment of underground space resources 244
7.8.4 Case Studies 244
7.8.4.1 Case study for Natong, China 244
7.8.4.2 Case Study for Xianyang, China 245
7.9 Long-term Forecasting of Underground Space Development Demand 246
7.9.1 Influencing factors for long-term forecasting 246
7.9.1.1 Case study for Dongguan, China 246
7.9.1.2 Case study for Xianyang, China 247
7.10 Summary of current analysis approaches 248
7.11 Chapter 7 references 248
8 PROJECT-RELATED PLANNING 252
8.1 Concept plan and requirements 252
8.1.1 Unstated and creeping requirements 253
8.1.2 Developing options and a robust concept 254
8.1.3 Systems tools for planning and decision making 256
8.1.4 Stakeholder analysis 257
8.2 Geo-planning 258
8.2.1 Site investigations 259
8.2.2 Good practice for site investigations 259
8.2.3 Cost planning for site investigations 260
8.3 Implementation planning 260
8.3.1 Contractual approach 261
8.3.2 Contracting for geological uncertainty (risk sharing) 261
8.3.3 Risk Management Plan 263
8.3.4 Construction planning 263
8.3.5 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 264
8.3.6 Managing excavation spoil 265
8.4 Space planning and engineering considerations 266
8.4.1 Openings and access 266
8.4.2 Dimensions and space requirements 267
8.4.3 Engineering systems 268
8.4.4 Air conditioning 268
8.4.5 Ventilation systems 269
8.4.6 Power supply, lighting, and electrical safety 269
8.5 Drainage and waterproofing 271
8.5.1 Some key categories of facilities in terms of water control 271
8.5.1.1 Shallow underground buildings, cut-and-cover tunnels and basement spaces 271
8.5.1.2 Rock cavern facilities 271
8.5.1.3 Bored or drill-and-blast tunnel facilities in rock or soil 272
8.5.2 Strategies and issues for water/moisture control 272
8.5.2.1 Impact on longevity, life-cycle cost and user acceptance 272
8.5.2.2 Building location, exterior envelope configuration and entrances, drainage provisions 272
8.5.2.3 Reducing or preventing water transmission 274
8.5.2.4 Choosing waterproofing systems 275
8.5.2.5 Facility geometry and detailing waterproofing systems 276
8.5.2.6 Deep underground spaces and tunnel systems 276
8.5.2.7 Long-term performance and maintenance 278
8.5.2.8 Summary for drainage and waterproofing 278
8.6 Considerations for maintenance and repair 278
8.6.1 Access for inspection, maintenance and repair 278
8.6.2 Inspection of tunnels, caverns, and shafts 279
8.6.3 Internal structures within rock caverns, tunnels and shafts 279
8.6.4 Supports for technical installations 279
8.6.5 Repairs of ground support or anchor systems 280
8.6.6 Confined space hazards 280
8.6.7 Radon gas 280
8.7 Chapter 8 references 280
9 DESIGNING UNDERGROUND SPACES - TOWARDS A NEW PARADIGM 283
9.1 Introduction 283
9.2 Moving from underground "works" to underground urban planning 284
9.2.1 Recognizing the range of resources available 284
9.2.2 Moving away from temporary and limited uses 285
9.2.3 Managing the porosity of the subsurface 285
9.2.4 The subsoil as a service area, a suburb of the aboveground 285
9.2.5 A Sustainable Development Approach to Resources and Flows 286
9.2.5.1 Empty or full? 286
9.2.5.2 Urban planning: the human source 286
9.2.5.3 The subsoil, an "inspiring" space 286
9.2.5.4 Conclusion 286
9.3 A change of paradigms 286
9.3.1 Now technology can do everything, what do we do with it? 287
9.3.2 General principles of underground architecture 288
9.3.2.1 Creating a void .... 288
9.3.2.2 ... or creating an inhabited space 288
9.3.2.3 Neither human life nor nature are rigid 288
9.3.2.4 The underground landscape exists, it must be taken into account 289
9.3.2.5 Questions beyond the quality of spaces 289
9.3.3 The legacy: from technical excellence to dehumanization 290
9.3.3.1 The beautification of Paris, thinking together the above and below 290
9.3.3.2 The metro, a technical network 290
9.3.3.3 Development of mastery, technical excellence but abandonment of a global conception of above and below 290
9.3.3.4 Separation of genres: the urban and its suburbs, slab urbanism, zoning 290
9.3.3.5 Towards a basement being an integral part of urban space 291
9.3.3.6 Starting from the fundamentals: Man humanizes his space, in a continuity of movement, and a continuity and unity of space 291
9.3.3.7 Against traditional zoning - the essential need for "mixed uses" 291
9.3.4 Examples to guide us 292
9.3.4.1 Networks 292
9.3.4.2 Isolated, unconnected structures 293
9.3.4.3 Connected works 293
9.3.4.4 Towards master plans 295
9.3.4.5 How to regenerate complexity and achieve diversity? 296
9.3.4.6 Economic balance 297
9.3.4.7 Developing another perspective, another approach: the real ground of the city 298
9.3.4.8 Highlighting the shortcomings 299
9.3.5 The National Project "Ville 10D" - City of Ideas initiative 300
9.3.5.1 The necessary interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity 301
9.3.5.2 Moving from adventure to evidence 301
9.3.5.3 A broad partnership for a systemic, multidisciplinary and experimental approach 301
9.3.5.4 Changing work orders: from underground works to underground urban planning 302
9.4 Evolving Thoughts on Underground Building Design 302
9.4.1 Complexity in Design 302
9.4.2 Interpreting and managing feelings of confinement 303
9.4.3 Compensating for the absence of windows 304
9.4.4 Adopting the tools of augmented reality 304
9.4.5 The Technical Upheavals in Lighting 305
9.4.5.1 Natural light and artificial light 306
9.4.5.2 Light and scenography 306
9.4.5.3 Technology at the service of nature underground 307
9.5 Chapter 9 References 307
10 PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS IN UNDERGROUND SPACE 308
10.1 Introduction 308
10.1.1 Relation to the first edition 308
10.2 First edition review (to 1993) 308
10.2.1 Purpose of first edition review 308
10.2.2 The image of the underground 309
10.2.3 Actual experience in underground buildings 311
10.2.3.1 Experience in Europe 311
10.2.3.2 Experience in the United States 312
10.2.3.3 Experience in China 314
10.2.3.4 Experience in Japan 315
10.2.4 Actual experience in windowless and other analogous environments 316
10.2.4.1 Windowless schools 317
10.2.4.2 Windowless offices 317
10.2.4.3 Windowless hospital rooms 317
10.2.4.4 Windowless factories 318
10.2.4.5 The functions of windows 318
10.3 Research and experience in the past thirty years 318
10.3.1 Introduction 318
10.3.2 General reviews 319
10.3.3 Objective comparisons of underground versus aboveground 322
10.3.4 Facility types and design elements 326
10.3.4.1 Workplace studies 326
10.3.4.2 Metro/rail 329
10.3.4.3 Road and pedestrian tunnels 330
10.3.4.4 Windows and lighting 331
10.3.4.5 Air quality / indoor environment 333
10.3.4.6 Biophilic indoor environments 334
10.3.5 Decision making for design and planning 335
10.3.5.1 Architectural design issues 335
10.3.5.2 Urban planning issues 337
10.4 Summary of issues 337
10.5 Chapter 10 references 341
11 EXTERIOR AND ENTRANCE DESIGN 347
11.1 Introduction 347
11.2 Exterior design issues and problems 347
11.2.1 Building image 348
11.2.2 Inability to see overall configuration 348
11.2.3 Exposed building services 349
11.3 Entrance design issues and problems 349
11.3.1 Entrance visibility and image 350
11.3.2 Lack of connection to surface environment 351
11.3.3 Fear of the underground 351
11.3.4 Separation of entrance functions 351
11.3.5 Access for mobility-impaired people 351
11.4 Summary of design objectives for exterior and entrance design 351
11.5 Design patterns: exterior and entrance design 352
11.5.1 Pattern 11-1: Terraced building with a hillside entrance 353
11.5.2 Pattern 11-2: Hillside entrance to an isolated facility 353
11.5.3 Pattern 11-3: Entrance through a sunken courtyard 354
11.5.4 Pattern 11-4: Open air structures over stairways and escalators 356
11.5.5 Pattern 11-5: Above-grade entrance pavilion 357
11.5.6 Pattern 11-6: Entrance through large above-grade building mass 359
11.5.7 Pattern 11-7: Open stairways, ramps and escalators 361
11.5.8 Pattern 11-8: Glass-enclosed vertical and inclined elevators 363
11.6 Additional considerations, caveats and lessons learned 365
11.6.1 Introduction 365
11.6.2 Building exterior 366
11.6.3 Building entrance 368
11.7 Chapter 11 References 370
12 LAYOUT AND SPATIAL CONFIGURATION 371
12.1 Introduction 371
12.2 Design issues and problems 371
12.2.1 Lack of spatial orientation 372
12.2.2 Confinement and lack of stimulation 374
12.2.3 Maintaining privacy 375
12.3 Design objectives for layout and spatial configuration 375
12.4 Design patterns: layout and spatial configuration 375
12.4.1 Pattern 12-1: A system of paths, landmarks, activity nodes, and zones 376
12.4.2 Pattern 12-2: Building with hillside exposure 379
12.4.3 Pattern 12-3: Sunken exterior courtyards 381
12.4.4 Pattern 12-4: Interior atrium spaces 383
12.4.5 Pattern 12-5: Building thoroughfare 386
12.4.6 Pattern 12-6: Short, lively passageways 388
12.4.7 Pattern 12-7: Zones of distinct character 389
12.4.8 Pattern 12-8: Interior windows overlooking activity 390
12.4.9 Pattern 12-9: Hierarchy of privacy 392
12.4.10 Pattern 12-10: Complex room shapes and interconnected spaces 395
12.4.11 Pattern 12-11: High and varied ceilings 397
12.5 Additional considerations, caveats and lessons learned 398
12.5.1 Introduction 398
12.5.2 Overall layout 399
12.5.3 Atrium / mezzanine spaces 400
12.5.4 Windows and privacy 401
12.5.5 Room shape 402
12.6 Chapter 12 References 402
13 INTERIOR DESIGN ELEMENTS AND SYSTEMS 404
13.1 Introduction 404
13.2 Design issues and problems 404
13.2.1 Stimulation and variety 405
13.2.2 Nature as a model 406
13.2.3 Confinement 406
13.2.4 Images of cold, damp spaces 407
13.2.5 Lower status 407
13.2.6 Spatial orientation 407
13.3 Design objectives for interior elements and systems 407
13.4 Design Patterns Related to Interior Elements and Systems 408
13.4.1 Pattern 13-1: Colorful, warm, and spacious environment 408
13.4.2 Pattern 13-2: Line, texture, and pattern 411
13.4.3 Pattern 13-3: Natural elements and materials 412
13.4.4 Pattern 13-4: Sculpture and man-made artifacts 415
13.4.5 Pattern 13-5: Warm, uncluttered furnishings 416
13.4.6 Pattern 13-6: Mirrors 418
13.4.7 Pattern 13-7: Alcoves and window-like recesses 419
13.4.8 Pattern 13-8: Paintings and photographs 420
13.4.9 Pattern 13-9: Transmitted and reflected exterior views 423
13.4.10 Pattern 13-10: Clear system of signs and maps 425
13.4.11 Pattern 13-11: Well-ventilated, comfortable environment 427
13.5 Additional considerations, caveats and lessons learned 430
13.5.1 Introduction 430
13.5.2 Interior style 430
13.5.3 Choice of materials 431
13.5.4 Sculpture, artifacts and activities 431
13.5.5 Mirrors and view configurations 432
13.5.6 Signage and maps 432
13.5.7 Air quality and comfort 433
13.6 Chapter 13 References 433
14 LIGHTING 436
14.1 Introduction 436
14.2 Design issues and problems 436
14.2.1 The desire for natural light 436
14.2.2 Lack of stimulation and connection with nature 437
14.2.3 Darkness, cold, and confinement 438
14.2.4 Physiological concerns of light 438
14.3 Design objectives related to lighting 441
14.4 Design patterns related to lighting 441
14.4.1 Pattern 14-1: Natural light through windows and skylights 442
14.4.2 Pattern 14-2: Transmitted and reflected natural light 445
14.4.3 Pattern 14-3: Artificial light with natural characteristics 448
14.4.4 Pattern 14-4: Skylights and wall panels with artificial backlighting 449
14.4.5 Pattern 14-5: Indirect lighting of walls and ceilings 451
14.4.6 Pattern 14-6: Dark, ambiguous boundaries 453
14.4.7 Pattern 14-7: Patterns of light and shadow 454
14.5 Additional considerations, caveats and lessons learned 455
14.5.1 Introduction 455
14.5.2 Exterior windows and skylights 455
14.5.3 Penetration of natural lighting within buildings 456
14.5.4 Interior lighting elements and systems 456
14.5.5 Lighting intensity variations 457
14.6 Chapter 14 References 457
15 LIFE SAFETY 459
15.1 Introduction 459
15.2 Design issues and problems 459
15.2.1 Emergency evacuation 461
15.2.2 Inaccessibility for fire fighting 462
15.2.3 Smoke and fire development 462
15.2.4 Innovation in underground life safety 463
15.3 Design objectives for life safety 463
15.4 Design patterns related to life safety 464
15.4.1 Pattern 15-1: Clear internal organization and egress system 464
15.4.2 Pattern 15-2: Safe vertical egress - stairwells, elevators, and escalators 469
15.4.3 Pattern 15-3: Compartmentalization and places of safe refuge 471
15.4.4 Pattern 15-4: Clear signs and emergency lighting 473
15.4.5 Pattern 15-5: Effective detection, alarm, and communication systems 475
15.4.6 Pattern 15-6: Effective smoke removal and air handling 476
15.4.7 Pattern 11-7: Effective fire suppression 478
15.4.8 Pattern 11-8: Fire-resistant construction and restriction of hazardous materials 478
15.5 Additional considerations, caveats and lessons learned 480
15.5.1 Introduction 480
15.5.2 Layout issues, compartmentalization, refuge and vertical egress 480
15.5.3 Detection, alarms, communications and signage 482
15.5.4 Smoke and fire 482
15.5.5 Materials and fire separation 483
15.6 Chapter 15 References 484
15.7 Short bibliography for recent standards and reports on underground fire and life safety 485
16 UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPLICATIONS 487
16.1 Introduction 487
16.2 Development of tunneling technology in rock 488
16.3 Development of tunneling technology in soft ground 490
16.4 Development of basement, open-cut excavation and shaft-sinking Technologies 492
16.5 Development of utility installation, rehabilitation and management technologies 493
16.6 Development of mining and oil/gas recovery technologies 496
16.7 Summary 498
16.8 Chapter 16 References 499
17 MANAGING UNDERGROUND SPACE FACILITIES 501
17.1 Introduction 501
17.2 Evolution of asset management approaches 501
17.3 Asset management for underground facilities - General considerations 503
17.3.1 Out-of-sight, out-of-mind 503
17.3.2 "If it ain't broke, don't fix it" 503
17.3.3 Incomplete records of underground facilities 503
17.3.4 Difficulties in locating, inspecting and assessing condition 504
17.3.5 End-of-service-life decisions 504
17.3.6 Asset management for occupied underground spaces 505
17.4 Asset management issues for specific underground facility types 506
17.4.1 Transportation tunnels 506
17.4.2 Large underground pipes and tunnels (person-entry) 506
17.4.3 Underground piping systems (non-person-entry) 506
17.4.4 Buried cables and conduits 507
17.4.5 Underground buildings 507
17.4.6 Rock caverns 508
17.4.7 Mining operations 508
17.4.8 Civil defense facilities 509
17.5 Improving underground asset management 509
17.5.1 Prioritization of maintenance and rehabilitation work 509
17.5.2 Relating condition to asset value 510
17.5.3 Improved database structures and visualization 510
17.5.4 Improving location, inspection and assessment methodologies 511
17.5.5 Subsurface utility engineering approach 512
17.5.6 Ongoing data capture and correction 513
17.5.7 Utility coordination 513
17.5.8 Damage prevention programs 513
17.6 Summary 514
17.7 References 515
APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY OF TERMS, ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 517
APPENDIX B: EFFECT OF LAND COST ON CHOICE FOR UNDERGROUND SPACE USE 522
APPENDIX C: DATABASE FORMATS FOR CATALOGING UNDERGROUND SPACE USES 531
APPENDIX D: WORLDWIDE EXAMPLES OF UNDERGROUND SPACE USES 537
