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Accelerate your understanding of modern energy storage with this one-stop resource that provides a comprehensive guide to the basics, materials, and recent advancements in high-efficiency supercapacitor technology.
The increasing population, environmental pollution, and growing demand for energy underscores the importance of highly efficient energy storage devices. Supercapacitors, often referred to as ultracapacitors, have emerged as a pivotal technology in the realm of energy storage. Increasing demand for supercapacitors arises from the high energy density required by various modern applications like electric vehicles, UPS systems, wind turbines, space vehicles, regenerative braking, load leveling systems, etc. The above-mentioned applications require an improvement in working voltage (by preventing/reducing reaction between electrode and electrolyte surface), specific capacitance, and energy density (by increasing the surface area, addition of transition metal oxides/conducting polymers, etc.) of the existing supercapacitors. Global research is directed towards blending the high energy density of batteries with the high-power density of traditional capacitors, thereby enabling the supercapacitors to be ideal for applications demanding rapid charge and discharge cycles, high power output, and long cycle life.
This book is designed to cover the basics of supercapacitors and provide a current account of the recent advances in this field. It provides the basics of various materials, different stages of growth in this field, and recent developments, making it a one-stop resource for understanding and advancing the field of supercapacitor technology.
Readers will find in the volume;
A detailed explanation of the electrochemical processes and energy storage mechanisms in supercapacitors, with a detailed introduction to supercapacitors;
A comprehensive review of various electrode materials, including carbon-based materials, metal oxides, and conducting polymers;
A detailed discussion on different electrolyte types (aqueous, organic, and ionic liquids) and their impact on supercapacitor performance;
An exploration of the design considerations and manufacturing techniques for supercapacitors.
Audience
The book will be a valuable resource for researchers, engineers, and industry professionals involved in various fields, including electronics, automotive, renewable energy, and grid storage.
Contents
Preface xv
1 Introduction to Supercapacitors 1
Shebin Stephen, S. A. Ilangovan, Sujatha S., Bibin John, Ajeesh K. S. and C. Sarathchandran
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Conclusion 8
1.3 Acknowledgement 8
References 8
2 Electric Double-Layer Capacitors 11
Phuoc Anh Le
2.1 Introduction to Electric Double-Layer Supercapacitors 11
2.2 General Principles and Related Theories 12
2.3 Designing of Electric Double-Layer-Based Supercapacitors 15
2.3.1 Current Collector 16
2.3.2 Electrodes 17
2.3.3 Electrolyte 17
2.3.4 Separator 17
2.4 Applications 17
2.4.1 Power Electronics Systems 18
2.4.2 Vehicles 18
2.4.3 Renewable Energy 18
2.5 Recent Developments 18
2.5.1 Carbon-Based Electrode for EDLCs 19
2.5.2 Other Carbon Materials 23
2.6 Conclusions 24
References 25
3 Electrochemical Supercapacitors Based on Pseudocapacitance 35
Renu Dhahiya, Dinesh, Mukul Gupta, Parasmani Rajput, Pankaj Sharma and Ashok Kumar
3.1 Introduction 36
3.2 Theory of Pseudocapacitance 37
3.3 Design and Fabrication of Pseudocapacitors 39
3.3.1 Transition Metal Oxides Intercalation 40
3.3.2 Nanostructuring to Achieve Pseudocapacitance 41
3.3.3 MXenes 43
3.3.4 Carbon-Based Material 43
3.4 Self-Discharge and Potential Recovery in Pseudocapacitors 43
3.4.1 Methods for Reducing Self-Discharge and Potential Recovery 44
3.4.2 Tuning the Separator 46
3.4.3 Modulating the Electrolyte 46
3.5 Recent Advances in Pseudocapacitors 47
3.5.1 Transition Metal Oxide-Based Pseudocapacitor 47
3.5.2 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides (TMDCs)-Based Pseudocapacitance 48
3.5.3 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)-Based Pseudocapacitance 49
3.5.4 MXenes-Based Pseudocapacitance 49
3.5.5 Material Design Strategies for Pseudocapacitance 50
3.6 Application 53
3.6.1 Automobiles and Transport 54
3.6.2 Defense and Military 54
3.6.3 Computers and Memory Backup Chips 54
3.6.4 Medical and Industry 54
3.7 Future Trends 55
Acknowledgments 56
References 56
4 Porous Carbon-Based Materials for Supercapacitor Applications 65
Deeksha Nagpal, Anup Singh, Ajay Vasishth, Subha Pratihar, Ashok Kumar and Shyam Sundar Pattnaik
4.1 Introduction 66
4.2 Mechanism of Charge Storage in Carbon-Based Materials 67
4.2.1 Charge Storage in Porous Carbon 69
4.3 Self-Discharge and Potential Decay in Carbon-Based Materials 70
4.3.1 Distinctive Self-Discharge Methods 72
4.4 Carbon-Derived from Various Sources and their Performance Evaluations 74
4.4.1 Performance Evaluation of Carbon Derived Biomass Waste 74
4.4.2 Carbon Derived from Other Industrial Waste 77
4.4.3 Tire Waste 77
4.5 Recent Trends and Future Applications of Carbon-Based Material for Supercapacitors 78
4.5.1 Template Carbon Gel 78
4.5.2 Carbon-Based Materials and Its Composites 79
References 80
5 Porous Activated Carbon-Based Materials for Supercapacitor Applications 91
Surendra K. Martha, Sadananda Muduli and Tapan K. Pani
5.1 Introduction 92
5.2 Charge Storage Mechanism in Porous Carbon-Based Supercapacitors 93
5.3 Self-Discharge and Potential Decay in Carbon-Based Materials 100
5.4 Carbon Derived from Various Sources and Their Performance Evaluation 104
5.5 Recent Trends and Future Applications 118
Acknowledgements 119
References 120
6 Biomass-Based Carbon Nanomaterials for Energy Storage 129
Debajani Tripathy, Bibhuti B. Sahu, Ankita Subhrasmita Gadtya and Srikanta Moharana
6.1 Introduction 130
6.2 Overview of Carbon-Based Nanostructured Materials 132
6.3 Synthesis of Carbon-Based Nanostructure Materials 133
6.4 Synthetic Approach for Biomass-Derived Carbon 134
6.4.1 Graphene 134
6.4.2 Carbon Nanotube 135
6.4.3 Carbon Onion 136
6.4.4 Carbon Sphere 137
6.5 Surface Alternation of Carbon Nanostructured Materials 137
6.6 Biomass-Derived Carbon for Energy Conversion and Storage Systems 141
6.6.1 Electrocatalysis Applications 141
6.6.2 Supercapacitor Application 143
6.6.3 Rechargeable Batteries 148
6.6.4 Solar Cell 151
6.6.5 Organic Solar Cells 153
6.7 Future Challenges 154
6.8 Conclusions 155
Acknowledgments 155
References 155
7 Carbon Nanotube as Electrode Material for Supercapacitors 161
Sanjeev Verma, Tapas Das, Shivani Verma, Vikas Kumar Pandey, Saurabh Kumar Pandey, Juhi Singh and Bhawna Verma
7.1 Introduction 162
7.2 CNT (Carbon Nanotube) 162
7.3 Supercapacitor Electrodes Using Carbon Nanotube 164
7.4 Summary 168
References 169
8 Graphene-Based Polymeric Composites with Potential Applications in Supercapacitors 175
Ankita Subhrasmita Gadtya, Debajani Tripathy and Srikanta Moharana
8.1 Introduction 176
8.2 Overview of Graphene-Polymer Composites 178
8.2.1 Electrical Properties of Graphene-Based Polymer Composite 180
8.2.2 Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Graphene-Based Polymer Composites 182
8.3 Supercapacitors 183
8.3.1 Electro-Chemical Double Layer Capacitors (EDLCs) 185
8.3.2 Pseudo-Capacitors 186
8.3.3 Hybrid Capacitors 186
8.4 Graphene-Based Different Polymeric Composites 187
8.5 Graphene-Based Fluoropolymer Composites for SCs 187
8.6 Graphene-Based Conducting Polymer Composites for SCs 191
8.7 Conclusions 194
Acknowledgments 194
References 195
9 Graphene-Based Materials for Supercapacitor Applications 203
Vikas Kumar Pandey and Bhawna Verma
Introduction 203
Conclusion and Outlook 212
References 212
10 Metal Oxides and Their Role in Pseudocapacitors 219
Rutuja A. Chavan and Anil V. Ghule
Summary 219
10.1 General Introduction 220
10.2 Role of Metal Oxides 224
10.3 Different Types of Metal Oxides Explored in Supercapacitors 225
10.4 Performance Evaluation 226
10.4.1 RuO2 226
10.4.2 MnO2 229
10.4.3 NiO 233
10.4.4 Co3 O4 236
10.4.5 V2 O5 239
10.4.6 IrO2 240
10.5 Future Scope 242
References 244
11 Advances in Design and Application of Nanostructured TMOs and Their Composites for High-Performance Supercapacitors 255
Sheng Qiang Zheng, Siew Shee Lim, Maxine Swee-Li Yee, Chuan Yi Foo, Choon Yian Haw, Wee Siong Chiu, Chin Hua Chia and Poi Sim Khiew
11.1 Introduction 256
11.2 Electrochemical Role of Metal Oxides 260
11.3 Different Types of Metal Oxides as Electrode Materials 264
11.3.1 Metal Oxide-Based Nanomaterials for Supercapacitors 264
11.3.1.1 Metal Oxide Nanomaterials 265
11.3.1.2 Binary Metal Oxides 268
11.3.1.3 Ternary Metal Oxides 270
11.3.1.4 Carbonaceous Nanomaterials Decorated Metal Oxides 272
11.3.2 Metal-Organic Framework-Derived Porous Metal Oxide-Based Nanocomposites for Supercapacitor Applications 274
11.3.2.1 MOF-Derived Metal Oxides 274
11.3.2.2 MOF-Derived Carbon-Based Metal Oxide Nanocomposites 277
11.4 Performance Parameters of Electrochemical Capacitors 281
11.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 284
Acknowledgement 286
References 286
12 Ceramic Oxide Based Supercapacitors 295
Thangavelu Kokulnathan, Sabarison Pandiyarajan, Balasubramanian Sriram and Shobana Sebastin Mary Manickaraj
Introduction 296
Metal Oxide Ceramics 296
Vanadium Oxide 300
Manganese Oxide 301
Iron Oxide 303
Cobalt Oxide 304
Nickel Oxide 305
Aluminum Oxide 305
Spinel Oxide Ceramics 307
Multi-Elemental Oxide Ceramic 309
Past, Current, and Future Progress 310
References 312
13 Conductive Polymers and Composites for Supercapacitors: Recent Trends and Future Scope 325
Silki Sardana, A.S. Maan and Anil Ohlan
13.1 Introduction 325
13.2 CPs for Supercapacitors 328
13.3 CP-Based Composites for Supercapacitors 332
13.4 Recent Trends on CP-Based Supercapacitors 334
13.4.1 CP/2D Material-Based Composite 334
13.4.2 3D CP Hydrogels for Supercapacitors 334
13.5 CP-Based Flexible Supercapacitors 339
13.6 Future Scope of CP-Based Supercapacitors 342
13.7 Conclusions 342
References 343
14 Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-C 3 N 4)-Based Materials for Supercapacitor Applications 351
Himadri Tanaya Das, Swapnamoy Dutta, Elango Balaji T., Payaswini Das and Nigamananda Das
14.1 Introduction 352
14.2 Different Carbon Materials as Electrodes in Supercapacitors 353
14.3 g-C3 N4 as Electrode Material in Supercapacitor 355
14.4 g-C3 N4 Composites and Their Use as Supercapacitors 358
14.5 Future Prospects 362
14.6 Conclusion 363
References 364
15 Introduction to MXenes for Supercapacitor Applications 371
Selcan Karakuş and Razium Ali Soomro
15.1 Introduction 372
15.2 Strategies for the Synthesis of 2D MXenes 374
15.3 MXene-Based Supercapacitors 378
15.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 381
References 382
16 MXenes for Supercapacitor Applications 387
Mayank K. Singh, Sarathkumar Krishnan and Dhirendra K. Rai
16.1 Introduction 388
16.2 Synthesis Technique 390
16.2.1 Top-Down Approach 390
16.2.1.1 HF Etching 390
16.2.1.2 Hydroflouride Salt Etching 391
16.2.1.3 Alkali Etching 392
16.2.1.4 Electrochemical Etching 392
16.3 Bottom-Up Techniques 393
16.4 Properties of MXenes 393
16.4.1 Electrical Properties 393
16.4.2 Mechanical Properties 393
16.4.3 Chemical Stability 394
16.5 MXenes and Its Composites 395
16.5.1 Basic Principle and Mechanism 396
16.5.2 Bare MXenes as Supercapacitors 397
16.5.3 MXenes - Carbonaceous Composite as Supercapacitors 399
16.5.4 MXenes with Polymers 400
16.5.5 MXenes and Transition Metal Sulfides 402
16.5.6 MXenes-Metal Oxides-Based Supercapacitors 403
16.6 MXenes in Various Electrolytes 403
16.6.1 Basics and Neutral Electrolyte 403
16.6.2 Acidic Electrolyte 404
16.7 Challenges and Future Perspectives 404
Acknowledgment 405
References 405
17 Hybrid Supercapacitors: Recent Trends and Future Scope 415
Basudeba Maharana, Rajan Jha and Shyamal Chatterjee
17.1 Introduction 416
17.2 Types of Hybrid Supercapacitors 417
17.3 Components of Hybrid Supercapacitors 419
17.3.1 Electrode Materials 420
17.3.2 Electrolytes 421
17.3.3 Separator 422
17.3.4 Current Collector 422
17.3.5 Sealants 423
17.4 Recent Trends in HSCs 423
17.4.1 Composite Hybrids 424
17.4.2 Asymmetric Hybrids 424
17.4.3 Battery Supercapacitor Hybrids 425
17.4.4 Modern Trends 427
17.4.5 Supercapattery 429
17.5 Future Scopes and Challenges 431
17.5.1 Designing Electrode Materials 434
17.5.2 Resistance Issues in the Device 434
17.6 Conclusions 435
References 436
18 Electrolytes and Their Role in Supercapacitor Technology 445
Dipanwita Majumdar, Padma Sharma and Niki Sweta Jha
18.1 Introduction 446
18.1.1 Effect of the Electrolyte on Supercapacitor Performance 446
18.1.2 What is an Ideal Electrolyte? 448
18.1.3 Performance Controlling Parameters of the Electrolytes for Designing Flexible Supercapacitors 449
18.2 Classes of Electrolytes for Supercapacitors 450
18.2.1 Liquid Electrolytes 450
18.2.1.1 Aqueous Electrolytes 451
18.2.1.2 Nonaqueous Electrolytes 458
18.2.2 Solid and Quasi-Solid-Type Electrolytes 467
18.2.3 Redox-Active Electrolytes 472
18.3 Conclusions and Outlooks 476
Acknowledgments 479
References 479
19 Designing Supercapacitors and Supercapacitor Materials by Counting Ions 497
Shrisudersan Jayaraman
19.1 Introduction 498
19.2 Theoretical Framework 499
19.2.1 The Importance of Electrolyte Conductivity at Charged State 499
19.2.2 The Importance of Volumetric Specific Capacitance 501
19.2.3 Relationship Between the Device Capacitance and Volumetric Specific Capacitance of the Electrode 502
19.2.4 Electrolyte Utilization Factor 503
19.2.5 Critical Operating Conditions 509
19.2.6 Electrolyte Concentration at the Charged State 513
19.2.7 Electrolyte Conductivity at the Charged State 515
19.2.8 Counter-Ion Adsorption with Desolvated Ions in the Pores 517
19.2.9 Ion Exchange as the Primary Charging Mechanism with Desolvated Ions in the Pores 520
19.2.10 Connecting Theory and Practical Device Performance 522
19.2.11 Jelly Roll Characteristics and Electrolyte Saturation Volume 523
19.2.12 Excess Electrolyte Volume 527
19.3 Experimental Results and Discussion 528
19.3.1 Constant Current Discharge 528
19.3.2 Constant Power Discharging 531
19.4 Conclusions and Summary 534
19.5 Appendix: Experimental Details 537
19.5.1 Electrolyte 537
19.5.2 Supercapacitor Devices 537
19.5.3 Electrochemical Testing 538
Acknowledgement 539
References 539
20 Global Market, Applications, and Leading Suppliers for Supercapacitors: An Introduction 543
Shebin Stephen George and C. Sarathchandran
20.1 Introduction to the Global Market of Supercapacitors 543
20.2 Applications of Supercapacitors 545
20.2.1 Recycling of Supercapacitors 547
20.3 Safety Issues Associated with Supercapacitors 549
20.4 Conclusion 549
References 550
21 Applications of Supercapacitor 553
Raunak Pandey, Santhosh G., Sarvajith Malali Sudhakara, Nannan Wang and Santosh K. Tiwari
21.1 Introduction 554
21.2 Energy-Harvesting Sources 555
21.2.1 Vibration or Mechanical Energy Harvesting 556
21.2.2 Ocean Wave Energy 556
21.2.3 Radiofrequency 557
21.2.4 Solar Energy 557
21.2.5 Wind Energy 557
21.3 Applications of Supercapacitors 559
21.3.1 Electronics 559
21.3.2 Energy Buffers 560
21.3.3 Microgrids 561
21.3.4 Consumer Electronics 565
21.3.5 Mechanical Tools 567
21.3.6 Flashlights 568
21.3.7 Internet of Things 569
21.3.8 Wearable Electronics 573
21.3.9 Static Memories 576
21.4 Transport 576
21.4.1 Electrical and Hybrid Vehicles 577
21.4.2 Energy Recovery and Management in EVs 581
21.4.3 Regenerative Braking 583
21.5 Medical 586
21.6 Industrial 589
21.7 Military 591
21.8 Conclusion 593
Bibliography 593
Index 611
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