Description
A groundbreaking book on the application of the economic and environmentally effective treatment of industrial wastewater
Constructed Wetlands for Industrial Wastewater Treatment contains a review of the state-of-the-art applications of constructed wetland technology for industrial wastewater treatment. This green technology offers many economic, environmental, and societal advantages. The text examines the many unique uses and the effectiveness of constructed wetlands for the treatment of complex and heavily polluted wastewater from various industrial sources.
The editor — a noted expert in the field — and the international author team (93 authors from 22 countries) present vivid examples of the current state of constructed wetlands in the industrial sector. The text is filled with international case studies and research outcomes and covers a wide range of applications of these sustainable systems including facilities such as the oil and gas industry, agro-industries, paper mills, pharmaceutical industry, textile industry, winery, brewery, sludge treatment and much more. The book reviews the many system setups, examines the different removal and/or transformational processes of the various pollutants and explores the overall effectiveness of this burgeoning technology. This important resource:
- Offers the first, groundbreaking text on constructed wetlands use for industrial wastewater treatment
- Provides a single reference with summarized information and the state-of-the-art knowledge of the use of Constructed Wetlands in the industrial sector through case studies, research outcomes and review chapters
- Covers a range of industrial applications such as hydrocarbons/oil and gas industry, food and beverage, wood and leather processing, agro-industries, pharmaceuticals and many others
- Includes best practices drawn by a collection of international case studies
- Presents the latest technological developments in the industry
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xvii
Preface xxv
Acknowledgements xxvii
Introduction to Constructed Wetland Technology 1
Alexandros I. Stefanakis
1 From Natural to Constructed Wetlands 1
2 The Need for Sustainable Solutions 3
3 Constructed Wetlands or Conventional Systems – Pros and Cons 3
4 Classification of Constructed Wetlands 6
4.1 Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands (FWS CWs) 7
4.2 Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands (HSF CWs) 7
4.3 Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands (VFCWs) 8
4.4 Floating Treatment Wetlands (FTWs) 9
4.5 Sludge Treatment Wetlands (STWs) 10
4.6 Aerated Constructed Wetlands 11
5 Design Considerations of Constructed Wetlands 11
6 Constructed Wetlands as a Sustainable Solution for the Industrial Sector 14
7 Scope of this Book 16
References 17
Part I Petrochemical and Chemical Industry 23
1 Integrated Produced Water Management in a Desert Oilfield Using Wetland Technology and Innovative Reuse Practices 25
Alexandros I. Stefanakis, Stephane Prigent and Roman Breuer
1.1 Introduction 25
1.2 Constructed Wetland for Produced Water Treatment 27
1.2.1 Location and Description 27
1.2.2 Weather Station 28
1.2.3 Chemical Analyses 30
1.3 Results and Discussion 32
1.3.1 Weather Data 32
1.3.2 Water Quality 32
1.3.3 Environmental Performance 35
1.4 Treated Effluent Reuse for Saline Irrigation 36
1.5 Conclusions 39
References 39
2 Constructed Wetlands Treating Water Contaminated with Organic Hydrocarbons 43
Martin Thullner, Alexandros I. Stefanakis and Saeed Dehestani
2.1 Introduction 43
2.1.1 Benzene Removal in Constructed Wetlands 44
2.2 MTBE Removal in Constructed Wetlands 48
2.3 Phenol Removal in Constructed Wetlands 51
2.4 Combined Treatment of Different Compounds 54
References 56
Part II Food and Beverage Industry 65
3 Aerated Constructed Wetlands for Treatment of Municipal and Food Industry Wastewater 67
A. Pascual, D. De la Varga, M. Soto, D. Van Oirschot, R.M. Kilian, J.A. Álvarez, P. Carvalho and C.A. Arias
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Aerated Constructed Wetlands 68
3.2.1 Oxygen Transfer at theWater–Biofilm Interface 69
3.2.2 Benefits of Artificial Aeration in Constructed Wetlands 70
3.2.3 Dissolved Oxygen Profile along CWs 71
3.2.4 TSS Removal 71
3.2.5 COD Removal 71
3.2.6 Nitrogen Removal 72
3.3 HIGHWET Project 72
3.3.1 KT Food Pilot Plant 73
3.3.2 Research Operational Plan of KT Food Treatment Plant 73
3.3.2.1 Campaign 1 77
3.3.2.2 Campaign 2 78
3.3.2.3 Campaign 3 80
3.3.2.4 Campaign 4 82
3.3.2.5 Campaign 5 84
3.3.3 Comparison of Results 85
3.4 Conclusions 87
Acknowledgements 88
References 88
4 Treatment of Wineries and Breweries Effluents using Constructed Wetlands 95
F. Masi, A. Rizzo, and R. Bresciani
4.1 Introduction 95
4.2 Wastewater Production and Characterization 96
4.2.1 Wineries 96
4.2.2 Breweries 96
4.3 Applications and Configurations 97
4.3.1 Wineries 97
4.3.1.1 Multistage CW with Nature-Based Composting as Pretreatment for Wastewater: An Italian Case Study 98
4.3.1.2 Multistage CW with Technological Composting as Pretreatment for Wastewater: A Spanish Case Study 99
4.3.1.3 Multistage CW with Technological Aerobic Reactor and Subsequent Composting on CW: A French Case Study 100
4.3.2 Breweries 101
4.4 Discussion and Conclusions 101
4.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Multistage CW Treatment Plants 101
4.4.2 Future Perspectives of CW for Brewery Waste water Treatment 103
References 103
5 Treatment of Effluents from Fish and Shrimp Aquacultures in Constructed Wetlands 105
Yaln Tepe and Fulya Aydin Temel
5.1 Introduction 105
5.1.1 Concerns in Aquaculture 105
5.2 Overview of Aquaculture and Effluent Treatment 107
5.2.1 Effluent Water Quality Considerations 108
5.3 Use of Constructed Wetlands for Treatment of Fish and Shrimp Culture Effluents 112
5.3.1 Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands (FWS CWs) 113
5.3.2 Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands (SFCWs) 114
5.3.3 Hybrid Systems (HS) 115
5.4 Conclusions 119
References 120
6 Evaluation of Treatment Wetlands of Different Configuration for the Sugarcane-Mill Effluent under Tropical Conditions 127
E. Navarro, R. Pastor, V. Matamoros and J.M. Bayona
6.1 Introduction 127
6.2 Modeling Water Consumption Minimization 130
6.2.1 First Approach to Linearity 131
6.2.2 A MILP Approach to the Problem 131
6.3 Type of Effluent and Pretreatment 133
6.3.1 Physical–Chemical Methods 133
6.3.2 Intensive Biological Processes 133
6.3.2.1 Suspended Bed Reactor 133
6.3.2.2 Fixed Bed Reactor 133
6.3.2.3 Fluidized Bed Reactor 134
6.3.3 Extensive Biological Processes 134
6.4 Constructed Wetlands (CWs) 135
6.4.1 Case Studies 135
6.4.1.1 India 135
6.4.1.2 Kenya 137
6.4.1.3 Mexico 137
6.4.1.4 South Africa 138
6.4.1.5 Thailand 138
6.4.2 Effects of Design and Operation on the COD, BOD and Nutrient Removal 139
6.4.3 Other Water Quality Parameters 140
6.4.3.1 Turbidity 140
6.4.3.2 Pigments 140
6.4.3.3 Sulfate 140
6.4.3.4 Nitrogen Removal 141
6.4.3.5 Phosphorus 141
6.5 Research Needs 141
Acknowledgements 141
References 142
7 Treatment of Effluents from Meat, Vegetable and Soft Drinks Processing using Constructed Wetlands 145
Marco Hartl, Joseph Hogan and Vassia Ioannidou
7.1 Treatment of Slaughterhouse and Meat Processing Wastewater 145
7.2 Treatment of Potato Washing Wastewater 150
7.3 Treatment of Molasses Wastewater 153
7.4 Treatment of Effluents from Coffee Processing 157
References 160
Part III Agro-Industrial Wastewater 163
8 Olive Mill Wastewater Treatment in Constructed Wetlands 165
F. Masi, A. Rizzo, R. Bresciani, D. Vayenas, C. Akratos, A. Tekerlekopoulou and A.I. Stefanakis
8.1 Introduction 165
8.2 Wastewater Production and Characterization 166
8.3 Applications and Configurations 166
8.3.1 The Greek Experiences 168
8.3.1.1 FreeWater Surface CWs 168
8.3.1.2 Horizontal Subsurface Flow CWs 170
8.3.1.3 Vertical Flow CWs 170
8.3.1.4 HybridWetland Systems 171
8.4 Evaporation Plus Constructed Wetlands : An Italian Innovative Approach 172
8.5 Discussion and Conclusions 172
References 173
9 Dairy Wastewater Treatment with Constructed Wetlands : Experiences from Belgium, the Netherlands and Greece 175
Christos S. Akratos, Dion van Oirschot, Athanasia G. Tekerlekopoulou, Dimitrios V. Vayenas and Alexandros Stefanakis
9.1 Introduction 175
9.2 Brief Literature Review onWetland Systems for DairyWastewater Treatment 176
9.3 Experiences from the Netherlands and Belgium 181
9.3.1 Wetland System Description 182
9.3.2 Operation 183
9.3.3 Results from the Netherlands 184
9.3.3.1 Experimental Projects 184
9.3.3.2 Stimulation of Denitrification through Recirculation of Effluent 185
9.3.3.3 Phosphorus Removal 185
9.3.4 Results from Belgium 187
9.3.4.1 System at Poppe, Eeklo 187
9.3.4.2 System at De Paep, Sint-GillisWaas in Belgium 188
9.3.4.3 System at PDLT, Geel in Belgium 189
9.3.4.4 AeratedWetland (FBA) at PDLT, Geel in Belgium 190
9.4 Experiences from Greece 192
9.4.1 First Experimental Project 192
9.4.2 Second Experimental Project 196
9.5 Conclusions 197
References 198
10 The Performance of Constructed Wetlands for Treating Swine Wastewater under Different Operating Conditions 203
Gladys Vidal, Catalina Plaza de Los Reyes and Oliver Sáez
10.1 Introduction 203
10.1.1 The Swine Sector and the Generation of Slurries 203
10.1.2 Characterization of Slurries 203
10.1.3 Environmental Effects of the Application of Slurry in Soils 205
10.1.4 Integrated Management for Treating Swine Slurry 205
10.1.5 Primary Treatment (Solids Removal) 207
10.1.6 Secondary Treatment (Organic Matter Removal) 207
10.1.6.1 Anaerobic Treatment Systems 207
10.2 Removal of Nutrients by Constructed Wetlands 207
10.2.1 ConstructedWetland (CW) 208
10.2.1.1 Macrophyte Species Used in Constructed Wetlands 209
10.2.1.2 Nitrogen Elimination Mechanisms in Constructed Wetlands 209
10.2.1.3 Incorporation into Plant Tissue (Assimilation) 212
10.2.1.4 Ammonium Sedimentation/Adsorption 212
10.2.1.5 Anammox (or Anaerobic Ammonia Oxidation) 213
10.3 Removal of Nutrients by Constructed Wetlands using Biological Pretreatments 213
Acknowledgements 216
References 216
Part IV Mine Drainage and Leachate Treatment 223
11 Constructed Wetlands for Metals: Removal Mechanism and Analytical Challenges 225
Adam Sochacki, Asheesh K. Yadav, Pratiksha Srivastava, Naresh Kumar, MarkWilliam Fitch and Ashirbad Mohanty
11.1 Sources of Metal Pollution and Rationale for Using Constructed Wetlands to Treat Metal-Laden Wastewater 225
11.2 Removal Mechanisms 226
11.2.1 Adsorption 226
11.2.2 Filtration and Sedimentation 226
11.2.3 Association with Metal Oxides and Hydroxides 227
11.2.4 Precipitation as Sulfides 227
11.2.4.1 Mechanism of the Process 228
11.2.4.2 Bacterial Sulfate Reduction in Constructed Wetlands 230
11.2.4.3 Carbon Source for Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria 231
11.2.5 Microbial Removal Processes 232
11.2.6 Plant Uptake of Metals in Constructed Wetlands 232
11.2.6.1 Metal Uptake by Aquatic Macrophytes 232
11.2.6.2 Metal Uptake by the Roots 233
11.2.6.3 Metal Uptake by the Shoots 233
11.2.6.4 Indirect Assistance in Metal Removal by Plants 233
11.2.6.5 Role of Plants in Removing Metals from Industrial Wastewater 234
11.2.7 Other Processes 235
11.3 Analytical Challenges 235
11.3.1 Background and Overview of Methods 235
11.3.2 Sequential Extraction Procedures and their Applicability to Wetland Substrates 237
11.3.3 State-of-the-Art Instrumental Methods 238
11.3.4 Advanced Analytical Techniques 239
References 241
12 A Review on the Use of Constructed Wetlands for the Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage 249
C. Sheridan, A. Akcil, U. Kappelmeyer and I. Moodley
12.1 What is Acid Mine Drainage? 249
12.2 Sources of AMD 250
12.3 Environmental and Social Impacts of AMD 251
12.3.1 Environmental Impacts 251
12.3.2 Social Impacts of AMD 253
12.4 Remediation of AMD 253
12.4.1 Constructed Wetlands 254
12.4.1.1 ConstructedWetland Configuration Types 254
12.4.1.2 Mechanism by which CWs Remediate Most AMD/ARD 254
12.4.1.3 Constructed Wetlands for Treating AMD Prior to 2000 255
12.4.1.4 Constructed Wetlands for Treating AMD Between 2001 and 2010 256
12.4.1.5 Constructed Wetlands for Treating AMD from 2010 to the Present 258
12.5 Summary 259
References 259
13 Solid Waste (SW) Leachate Treatment using Constructed Wetland Systems 263
K.B.S.N. Jinadasa, T.A.O.K. Meetiyagoda andWun Jern Ng
13.1 The Nature of SolidWaste (SW) and SWLeachate 263
13.2 Characteristics of SWLeachate in Tropical Developing Countries 265
13.3 TreatmentMethods for SWLeachate 267
13.3.1 Advantages of Constructed Wetlands for Leachate Treatment Under Tropical Climate 269
13.4 ExperimentalMethodology for Plant Species and CWPerformance Evaluation 270
13.5 Effect of Plant Species on Leachate Components 273
13.5.1 Effect on Organic Compounds 273
13.5.2 Effect on Removal and Transformation of Nitrogen Compounds 276
13.6 Summary 279
References 279
Part V Wood and Leather Processing 283
14 Cork Boiling Wastewater Treatment in Pilot Constructed Wetlands 285
Arlindo C. Gomes, Alexandros Stefanakis, António Albuquerque and Rogério Simões
14.1 Introduction 285
14.1.1 Cork Production and Manufacture 285
14.1.2 Cork Boiling Wastewater Characteristics 286
14.2 Cork Boiling Wastewater Treatment 289
14.2.1 Physico-Chemical Treatment 289
14.2.2 Biological Treatment 298
14.2.3 Sequential Treatment 299
14.3 Constructed Wetland Technology 300
14.3.1 Experimental Setup of Microcosm-Scale Constructed Wetlands 301
14.3.2 Experimental Results 302
14.4 Conclusions 304
Acknowledgements 305
References 305
15 Constructed Wetland Technology for Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater Treatment 309
Satish Kumar and Ashutosh Kumar Choudhary
15.1 Introduction 309
15.2 Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater Characteristics 310
15.3 Remediation of Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater Pollution 311
15.4 Constructed Wetlands 312
15.4.1 Performance of CWs for Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater Treatment 312
15.5 Conclusions 322
References 322
16 Treatment of Wastewater from Tanneries and the Textile Industry using Constructed Wetland Systems 327
Christos S. Akratos, Athanasia G. Tekerlekopoulou and Dimitrios V. Vayenas
16.1 Introduction 327
16.1.1 Tannery Wastewaters 327
16.1.2 Azo Dye and Textile Industries 330
16.2 Discussion 332
16.3 Constructed Wetlands for Cr(VI) Removal: A Case Study 332
16.4 Conclusions 337
References 338
Part IV Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics Industry 343
17 Removal Processes of Pharmaceuticals in Constructed Wetlands 345
A. Dordio and A.J.P. Carvalho
17.1 Introduction 345
17.2 Pharmaceutical Compounds in the Environment: Sources, Fate and Environmental Effects 348
17.3 Pharmaceuticals Removal in Constructed Wetlands 352
17.3.1 Removal Efficiency of Pharmaceuticals in CWS 352
17.3.2 Main Removal Processes for Pharmaceuticals in SSF-CWS 365
17.3.2.1 Abiotic Processes 365
17.3.2.2 Biotic Processes 367
17.3.3 The Role of SSF-CWS Components in Pharmaceutical Removal 370
17.3.3.1 The Role of Biotic Components (Plants and Microorganisms) in Pharmaceuticals Removal 370
17.3.3.2 The Role of the Support Matrix in Pharmaceuticals Removal 381
17.4 Final Remarks 385
References 386
18 Role of Bacterial Diversity on PPCPs Removal in Constructed Wetlands 405
María Hijosa-Valsero, Ricardo Sidrach-Cardona, Anna Pedescoll, Olga Sánchez and Eloy Bécares
18.1 Introduction 405
18.2 Mesocosm-Scale Experiences 406
18.2.1 Description of the Systems 406
18.2.2 Sampling Strategy 406
18.2.3 Analytical Methodology 408
18.3 Pollutant Concentrations and Removal Efficiencies in Mesocosms CWs 409
18.4 Microbiological Characterization 409
18.5 Link between Microbiological Richness and Pollutant Removal in CWs 413
18.5.1 Microbial Richness and Conventional Pollutant Removal 413
18.5.1.1 Roots 413
18.5.2 Microbial Richness and PPCP Removal 414
18.5.2.1 Gravel 414
18.5.2.2 Interstitial Liquid 414
18.5.2.3 Roots 414
18.5.3 Effect of Physico-Chemical Parameters on Microbial Richness 416
18.5.3.1 Gravel 416
18.5.3.2 Interstitial Liquid 416
18.5.3.3 Roots 416
18.6 Mechanisms and Design Parameters Involved in PPCPs Removal 418
18.7 Conclusions 420
Acknowledgements 421
References 421
Part VII Novel Industrial Applications 427
19 Dewatering of Industrial Sludge in Sludge Treatment Reed Bed Systems 429
S. Nielsen and E. Bruun
19.1 Introduction 429
19.2 Methodology 431
19.2.1 Description of an STRB 431
19.2.2 Description of STRB Test-System 432
19.3 Treatment of Industrial Sludge in STRB Systems 434
19.3.1 Organic Material in Sludge 434
19.3.2 Fats and Oil in Sludge 434
19.3.3 Heavy Metals in Sludge 435
19.3.4 Nutrients in Sludge 436
19.3.5 Hazardous Organic Compounds in Sludge 436
19.4 Case Studies – Treatment of Industrial Sludge in Full-Scale and Test STRB Systems 437
19.4.1 Case 1: Treatment of Industrial Sewage Sludge with High Contents of Fat 437
19.4.2 Case 2: Treatment of Industrial Sewage Sludge with High Contents of Heavy Metal (Nickel) 438
19.4.3 Case 3: Treatment of Water Works Sludge 440
19.4.3.1 Feed Sludge and Resulting Filtrate Quality 442
19.4.3.2 Sedimentation and Capillary Suction Time 443
19.4.3.3 Sludge Volume Reduction and Sludge Residue Development 446
19.4.3.4 Filtrate Water Flow 447
19.5 Discussion and Conclusions 448
19.5.1 Industrial Sludge 448
19.5.2 Water Works Sludge 449
Acknowledgements 450
References 450
20 Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement and Temperature Reduction at a Power-Generating Facility 453
Christopher H. Keller, Susan Flash and John Hanlon
20.1 Introduction 453
20.2 Basis of Design 453
20.2.1 Design for Ammonia and Copper Reduction 454
20.2.2 Design for pH, Toxicity, and Specific Conductance 456
20.2.3 Design for Temperature Reduction 456
20.2.4 Process Flow and Final Design Criteria 458
20.3 Construction 458
20.4 Operational Performance Summary 459
20.4.1 Inflow and Outflow Rates and Wetland Water Depths 459
20.4.2 Ammonia 463
20.4.3 Copper 463
20.4.4 pH 463
20.4.5 Temperature 464
20.4.6 Whole Effluent Toxicity 466
20.4.7 Specific Conductance 466
20.5 Discussion 466
References 468
21 Recycling of Carwash Effluents Treated with Subsurface Constructed Wetlands 469
A. Torrens, M. Folch, M. Salgot and M. Aulinas
21.1 Introduction 469
21.2 Case Study: Description 471
21.2.1 Pilot Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland 471
21.2.2 Pilot Horizontal Flow Constructed Wetland 471
21.2.3 Operation and Monitoring 472
21.3 Case Study: Results and Discussion 474
21.3.1 Influent Characterization 474
21.3.2 Effluent Quality for Recycling 477
21.3.3 Performance of the Constructed Wetland Pilots 478
21.3.3.1 Horizontal Flow Constructed Wetland 478
21.3.3.2 Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland 482
21.3.3.3 Comparison of Performances 486
21.4 Design and Operation Recommendations 488
21.4.1 Horizontal Flow Constructed Wetland 488
21.4.2 Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland 489
21.5 Conclusions 489
References 490
22 Constructed Wetland-Microbial Fuel Cell: An Emerging Integrated Technology for Potential Industrial Wastewater Treatment and Bio-Electricity Generation 493
Asheesh Kumar Yadav, Pratiksha Srivastava, Naresh Kumar, Rouzbeh Abbassi and Barada Kanta Mishra
22.1 Introduction 493
22.2 The Fundamentals of MFC and Microbial Electron Transfer to Electrode 495
22.3 State of the Art of CW-MFCs 496
22.3.1 Design and Operation of CW-MFCs 496
22.3.2 Performance Evaluation of the Various CW-MFCs 497
22.4 Potential IndustrialWastewater Treatment in CW-MFCs 500
22.5 Challenges in Generating Bio-Electricity in CW-MFCs During IndustrialWastewater Treatment 502
22.6 Future Directions 503
Acknowledgements 504
References 504
23 Constructed Wetlands for Storm water Treatment from Specific (Dutch) Industrial Surfaces 511
Floris Boogaard, Johan Blom and Joost van den Bulk
23.1 Introduction 511
23.2 Storm water Characteristics 511
23.2.1 Storm water Quality in Urban Areas 511
23.2.2 Industrial Storm water Quality 513
23.2.3 Fraction of Pollutants Attached to Particles 513
23.2.3.1 Particle Size Distribution 515
23.2.4 Removal Efficiency 515
23.3 Best Management Practices of (Dutch)Wetlands at Industrial Sites 515
23.3.1 Amsterdam Westergasfabriekterrein 518
23.3.2 Constructed Wetland Oostzaan: Multifunctional High Removal Efficiency 518
23.3.3 Constructed Wetland Hoogeveen, Oude Diep 520
23.3.4 Cost 520
23.3.5 Choosing Best Location(s) of Wetlands on Industrial Areas 520
23.4 Innovation in Monitoring Wetlands 522
23.4.1 Innovative Determination of Long-Term Hydraulic Capacity of Wetlands 523
23.4.2 Innovating Monitoring of Removal Efficiency and Eco-Scan 524
23.5 Conclusions and Recommendations 525
23.5.1 Conclusions 525
23.5.2 Recommendations 527
References 527
Part VIII Managerial Aspects 529
24 A Novel Response of Industry to Wastewater Treatment with Constructed Wetlands: A Managerial View through System Dynamic Techniques 531
Ioannis E. Nikolaou and Alexandros I. Stefanakis
24.1 Introduction 531
24.2 Theoretical Underpinning 532
24.2.1 Constructed Wetlands – A Short Review 532
24.2.2 Constructed Wetlands : An Economic–Environmental Approach 533
24.2.3 Constructed Wetlands : An Industrial Viewpoint 534
24.2.4 CWs Through a CSR Glance 534
24.3 Methodology 536
24.3.1 Research Structure 536
24.3.2 The CSR-CWs Agenda 537
24.3.3 CSR-CWs Balanced Scorecard 537
24.3.4 CSR-CWs Balanced Scorecard System Dynamic Model 539
24.3.5 Some Certain Scenario Developments 540
24.4 Test of Scenarios and a Typology Construction for Decision Making 541
24.4.1 Scenario Analysis 541
24.4.1.1 The Proactive Industry –The Business Case Approach 541
24.4.1.2 Proactive Industry –The Ethical Case Approach 541
24.4.1.3 Reactive Industry – The Business Case Approach 543
24.4.1.4 Reactive Industry – The Ethical Case Approach 543
24.4.2 A Typology of Industry Decision Making in CSR-CWs Agenda 544
24.5 Conclusion and Discussion 545
References 546
25 A Construction Manager’s Perception of a Successful Constructed Wetland Project 551
Emmanuel Aboagye-Nimo, Justus Harding and Alexandros I. Stefanakis
25.1 Key Performance Indicators for Construction Projects 551
25.2 Function and Values of Constructed Wetlands 552
25.2.1 Constructed Wetland Components 553
25.3 Clear Deliverables of Project 554
25.3.1 Health and Safety Considerations in Construction Projects 555
25.3.2 Hazard Identification and Risk Screening 556
25.3.3 Securing the Project 556
25.4 Critical Points in Constructing Wetlands 556
25.5 Summary 559
References 560
Index 563
